JOURNAL TRANSCRIPT

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MEDICINAL PLANTS

P. P. Joy J. Thomas Samuel Mathew Baby P. Skaria Assisted by: Cini Sara Varghese S. S. Indumon P. K. Victoria Jancy Stephen Dimple George P. S. Somi

1998

KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station Odakkali, Asamannoor P.O., Ernakulam District, Kerala, India PIN : 683 549, Tel: (0484) 658221, E-mail: [email protected]

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MEDICINAL PLANTS I

IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE

II

CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

III

CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

IV

PROCESSING AND UTILISATION

V

STORAGE OF RAW DRUGS

VI

QUALITY AND EVALUATION

VII

TROPICAL MEDICINAL PLANTS A. Medicinal herbs B. Medicinal shrubs C. Medicinal climbers D. Medicinal trees

VIII

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

IX

ABBREVIATIONS

X

NAMES OF BOTANISTS

XI

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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MEDICINAL PLANTS I. IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE Herbs are staging a comeback and herbal ‘renaissance’ is happening all over the globe. The herbal products today symbolise safety in contrast to the synthetics that are regarded as unsafe to human and environment. Although herbs had been priced for their medicinal, flavouring and aromatic qualities for centuries, the synthetic products of the modern age surpassed their importance, for a while. However, the blind dependence on synthetics is over and people are returning to the naturals with hope of safety and security. Over three-quarters of the world population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care. More than 30% of the entire plant species, at one time or other, were used for medicinal purposes. It is estimated that world market for plant derived drugs may account for about Rs.2,00,000 crores. Presently, Indian contribution is less than Rs.2000 crores. Indian export of raw drugs has steadily grown at 26% to Rs.165 crores in 1994-’95 from Rs.130 crores in 1991-’92. The annual production of medicinal and aromatic plant’s raw material is worth about Rs.200 crores. This is likely to touch US $1150 by the year 2000 and US $5 trillion by 2050. It has been estimated that in developed countries such as United States, plant drugs constitute as much as 25% of the total drugs, while in fast developing countries such as China and India, the contribution is as much as 80%. Thus, the economic importance of medicinal plants is much more to countries such as India than to rest of the world. These countries provide two third of the plants used in modern system of medicine and the health care system of rural population depend on indigenous systems of medicine. Of the 2,50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 are medicinal. India is one of the world’s 12 biodiversity centres with the presence of over 45000 different plant species. India’s diversity is unmatched due to the presence of 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and 426 biomes (habitats of specific species). Of these, about 15000-20000 plants have good medicinal value. However, only 7000-7500 species are used for their medicinal values by traditional communities. In India, drugs of herbal origin have been used in traditional systems of medicines such as Unani and Ayurveda since ancient times. The Ayurveda system of medicine uses about 700 species, Unani 700, Siddha 600, Amchi 600 and modern medicine around 30 species. The drugs are derived either from the whole plant or from different organs, like leaves, stem, bark, root, flower, seed, etc. Some drugs are prepared from excretory plant product such as gum, resins and latex. Even the Allopathic system of medicine has adopted a number of plant-derived drugs (Table: medicinal plants used in modern medicine) which form an important segment of the modern pharmacopoeia. Some important chemical intermediates needed for manufacturing the modern drugs are also obtained from plants (Eg. diosgenin, solasodine, ionone). Not only, that plant-derived drug offers a stable market world wide, but also plants continue to be an important source for new drugs. Traditional systems of medicine continue to be widely practised on many accounts. Population rise, inadequate supply of drugs, prohibitive cost of treatments, side effects of several allopathic drugs and development of resistance to currently used drugs for infectious diseases have led to increased emphasis on the use of plant materials as a source of medicines for a wide variety of human ailments. Global estimates indicate that 80% of about 4 billion population can not afford the products of the Western Pharmaceutical Industry and have to rely upon the use of traditional medicines which are mainly derived from plant material. This fact is well documented in the inventory of medicinal plants, listing over 20,000 species. In spite of the overwhelming influences and our dependence on modern medicine and tremendous advances in synthetic drugs, a large segment of the world population still like drugs from plants. In many of the developing countries the use of plant drugs is increasing because modern life saving drugs are beyond the reach of three quarters 3

of the third world’s population although many such countries spend 40-50% of their total wealth on drugs and health care. As a part of the strategy to reduce the financial burden on developing countries, it is obvious that an increased use of plant drugs will be followed in the future. Among ancient civilisations, India has been known to be rich repository of medicinal plants. The forest in India is the principal repository of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants, which are largely collected as raw materials for manufacture of drugs and perfumery products. About 8,000 herbal remedies have been codified in Ayurveda. The Rigveda (5000 BC) has recorded 67 medicinal plants, Yajurveda 81 species, Atharvaveda (4500-2500 BC) 290 species, Charak Samhita (700 BC) and Sushrut Samhita (200 BC) had described properties and uses of 1100 and 1270 species respectively, in compounding of drugs and these are still used in the classical formulations, in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. Unfortunately, much of the ancient knowledge and many valuable plants are being lost at an alarming rate. With the rapid depletion of forests, impairing the availability of raw drugs, Ayurveda, like other systems of herbal medicines has reached a very critical phase. About 50% of the tropical forests, the treasure house of plant and animal diversity have already been destroyed. In India, forest cover is disappearing at an annual rate 1.5mha/yr. What is left at present is only 8% as against a mandatory 33% of the geographical area. Many valuable medicinal plants are under the verge of extinction. The Red Data Book of India has 427 entries of endangered species of which 28 are considered extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 100 rare and 34 insufficiently known species (Thomas, 1997). Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Folk (tribal) medicines are the major systems of indigenous medicines. Among these systems, Ayurveda is most developed and widely practised in India. Ayurveda dating back to 1500-800 BC has been an integral part of Indian culture. The term comes from the Sanskrit root Au (life) and Veda (knowledge). As the name implies it is not only the science of treatment of the ill but covers the whole gamut of happy human life involving the physical, metaphysical and the spiritual aspects. Ayurveda recognises that besides a balance of body elements one has to have an enlightened state of consciousness, sense organs and mind if one has to be perfectly healthy. Ayurveda by and large is an experience with nature and unlike in Western medicine, many of the concepts elude scientific explanation. Ayurveda is gaining prominence as the natural system of health care all over the world. Today this system of medicine is being practised in countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan, while the traditional system of medicine in the other countries like Tibet, Mongolia and Thailand appear to be derived from Ayurveda. Phytomedicines are also being used increasingly in Western Europe. Recently the US Government has established the “Office of Alternative Medicine” at the National Institute of Health at Bethesda and its support to alternative medicine includes basic and applied research in traditional systems of medicines such as Chinese, Ayurvedic, etc. with a view to assess the possible integration of effective treatments with modern medicines. The development of systematic pharmacopoeias dates back to 3000 BC, when the Chinese were already using over 350 herbal remedies. Ayurveda, a system of herbal medicine in India, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia has more than 8000 plant remedies and using around 35,000-70,000 plant species. China has demonstrated the best use of traditional medicine in providing the health care. China has pharmacologically validated and improved many traditional herbal medicines and eventually integrated them in formal health care system. Green plants synthesise and preserve a variety of biochemical products, many of which are extractable and used as chemical feed stocks or as raw material for various scientific investigations. Many secondary metabolites of plant are commercially important and find use in a number of pharmaceutical compounds. However, a sustained supply of the source material often becomes difficult due to the factors like environmental changes,

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cultural practices, diverse geographical distribution, labour cost, selection of the superior plant stock and over exploitation by pharmaceutical industry. Plants, especially used in Ayurveda can provide biologically active molecules and lead structures for the development of modified derivatives with enhanced activity and /or reduced toxicity. The small fraction of flowering plants that have so far been investigated have yielded about 120 therapeutic agents of known structure from about 90 species of plants. Some of the useful plant drugs include vinblastine, vincristine, taxol, podophyllotoxin, camptothecin, digitoxigenin, gitoxigenin, digoxigenin, tubocurarine, morphine, codeine, aspirin, atropine, pilocarpine, capscicine, allicin, curcumin, artemesinin and ephedrine among others. In some cases, the crude extract of medicinal plants may be used as medicaments. On the other hand, the isolation and identification of the active principles and elucidation of the mechanism of action of a drug is of paramount importance. Hence, works in both mixture of traditional medicine and single active compounds are very important. Where the active molecule cannot be synthesised economically, the product must be obtained from the cultivation of plant material. About 121 (45 tropical and 76 subtropical) major plant drugs have been identified for which no synthetic one is currently available (table 1). The scientific study of traditional medicines, derivation of drugs through bioprospecting and systematic conservation of the concerned medicinal plants are thus of great importance. Table 1. Major plant drugs for which no synthetic one is currently available (Kumar et al, 1997). Drug Vinblastine Vinblastine Ajmalacine Rescinnamine Reserpine Quinine

Plant Catharanthus roseus Catharanthus roseus Catharanthus roseus Rauvolfia serpentina Rauvolfia serpentina Cinchona sp.

Pilocarpine Cocaine Morphine Codeine Atropine Atropine Cardiac glycosides Artemisinin Taxol

Pilocarpus jaborandi Erythroxylum coca Papaver somniferum Papaver somniferum Atropa belladonna Hyoscyamus niger Digitalis sp. Artemesia annua Taxus baccata T. brevifolia Berberis Celastrus paniculata Ailanthus Plumbago indica Diospyros montana Gossypium sp. Allium sativum Ricinus communis Cephaelis ipecacuanha Glycyrrhizia glabra Azadirachta indica

Berberine Pristimerin Quassinoids Plumbagin Diospyrin Gossypol Allicin Ricin Emetine Glycyrrhizin Nimbidin

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Use Anticancer Anticancer Anticancer, hypotensive Tranquilizer Tranquilizer Antimalarial, amoebic dysentery Antiglucoma Topical anaesthetic Painkiller Anticough Spasmolytic, cold Spasmolytic, cold For congestive heart failure Antimalarial, Breast and ovary cancer, antitumour For leishmaniasis Antimalarial Antiprotozoal Antibacterial, antifungal Antispermatogenic Antifungal, amoebiasis Amoebiasis Antiulcer Antiulcer

Catechin Sophoradin Magnolol Forskolin Digitoxin, Digoxin Thevenerin, Nerrifolin Podophyllin Indicine N-oxide Elipticine Homoharringtonine Camptothecine

Acacia catechu Sophora subprostrata Magnolia bark Coleus forskohlii Digitalis, Thevetia Thevetia Thevetia Podophyllum emodi Heliotropium indicum Ochrosia Cephalotaxus Camptotheca acuminata

Antiulcer Antiulcer Peptic ulcer Hypotensive, cardiotonic Cardio tonic Cardio tonic Cardio tonic Anticancer Anticancer Anticancer Anticancer Anticancer

A major lacuna in Ayurveda is the lack of drug standardisation, information and quality control. Most of the Ayurvedic medicines are in the form of crude extracts which are a mixture of several ingredients and the active principles when isolated individually fail to give desired activity. This implies that the activity of the extract is the synergistic effect of its various components. In the absence of pharmacopoeia data on the various plant extracts, it is not possible to isolate or standardise the active contents having the desired effects. Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia compiled on modern lines and updated periodically is an urgent requirement. A combination therapy integrating Ayurveda and allopathy whereby the side effects and undesirable reactions could be controlled can be thought of. Studies can show that the toxic effects of radiations and chemotherapy in cancer treatment could be reduced by Ayurvedic medications and similarly surgical wound healing could be accelerated by Ayurvedic medicines. Modern science and technology have an essential role to play in the process. An integrated approach for the cultivation, conservation and preservation of important plant species through plant molecular biology, plant tissue culture; research on the rationale and methodology of Ayurvedic medical practice; isolation of active constituents and their development into new therapeutics; standardisation and validation of known herbal medicines and other related aspects need to be focussed upon (Sharma, 1997). Despite the diverse nature of crops grown in the country and the existence of a fast growing pharmaceutical sector, the share of India in world trade is quite insignificant considering the large geographical area. However, this is bound to rise rapidly with better research inputs and efficient management of the farm sector. So far, India has been involved in the export of only large volume raw material. To achieve competitive advantage we need to resort to low volume high cost (value) trade through value addition to the raw and unfinished products. It is therefore, necessary to develop genetically superior planting material for assured uniformity and desired quality and resort to organised cultivation to ensure the supply of raw material at grower’s end. Post harvest storage and process technologies need to be developed to produce the value added finished products that may be directly utilised by the industry Inventorisation of herbal drugs used in traditional and modern medicines for a country like India, appears to be a stupendous task, where a number of well established indigenous or traditional systems, including Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homoeopathy, Tibetan, Amchi, Yoga and Naturopathy are practised along with modern medicine for the management of total health care system. In all these systems a large number of plant drugs are used, although there may be some common plants. Another problem in correct identification of plants is that the plant drugs in those systems of medicine are known by their classical, Shastriya or vernacular names. It is not easy to correlate these names with

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acceptable scientific names. One plant species can have many vernacular classical names and one name may refer to different plant species. Chinese, Indian, Arabian and other traditional systems of medicines make extensive use of about 5000 plants. India is proud to be rich in biological diversity and tenth among the plant rich countries of Asia, sixth as far as centres of diversity especially agrodiversity are concerned. Nearly three fourth of the drugs and perfumery products used in the world are available in natural state in the country. India possesses almost 8% of the estimated biodiversity of the world with around 1,26,000 species. It is one of the 12 mega biodiversity centres with 2 hot spots of biodiversity in western Ghats and north-eastern region. The sacred groves are a miniature ecosystem conserving biodiversity in its pristine form. There are about 400 families in the world of flowering plants, at least 315 are represented in India. According to WHO, around 21,000 plant species have the potential for being used as medicinal plants. About 5000 species have been studied (tables 2-6). There are at least 121 major plant drugs of known structure, but none of them is currently produced through synthetic means. For developing phytomedicines as a major area of concern, it would be essential to adopt a holistic interdisciplinary approach, have a scientific basis of the understanding of the plant systems, new innovations and their conservation for utilisation in future on a sustainable basis (Sharma, 1997). Table 2. Plant species with therapeutic value under different plant groups (Jiaxiang, 1997). Thalophytes 230 Bryophytes 39 Pteridophytes 382 Gymnospermae 55 Angiospermae: a) Monocotyledones 676 b) Dicotyledones 3495 Total 4877 Table 3. Plant families containing over 100 species with therapeutic value (Jiaxiang, 1997).

Family

Genera

I. Monocots Liliaceae 45 Orchidaceae II. Dicots Compositae Leguminosae Ranuculaceae Laminaceae Rosaceae Umbelliferae Rubiaceae Euphorbiaceae Asclepiadaceae

Species

165 45

135

89 91 31 46 28 34 35 30 29

331 313 208 189 146 123 118 104 101

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Table 4. Major medicinal plants that can be cultivated in India and have established demand for their raw materials (Kumar et al, 1997). Acorus calamus Aconitum sp. Adhatoda vasica Aloe vera Ammi majur Atropa acuminata Berberis aristata Carica papaya Catharanthus roseus Cassia senna Cephaelis ipecacuanha Cinchona spp. Dioscorea spp. Glycyrrhiza glabara Hedychium spicatum Heracleum candicans Hyoscyamus sp.muticus Inula racemosa Juglans regia Juniperus spp.

Matricaria chamomilla Papaver somniferum Plantago ovata Podophyllum emodi Rauvolfia serpentina Rheum emodi Saussurea lappa Swertia chirata Urginea indica Valeriana wallichii Zingiber officinale Bacopa monnieri Boerhaavia diffusa Dudoisia myoporoides Eclipta alba Gymnema sylvestre Phyllanthus amarus Piper retrofractum Panax quinquefolium Silybum marialum

Table 5. Medicinal plants on which significant research leads have been obtained with respect to their pharmaceutical potential for which processing and agrotechnology need to be established (Kumar et al, 1997). Andrographis paniculata Artemisia annum Boswellia serrata Centella asiatica Coleus forskohlii Commiphora wightii

Curcuma longa Phyllanthus amarus Picrorhiza kurroa Sida rhombifolia Taxus baccata Withania somnifera

Table 6. Plants which delay ageing process and form health food ingredients in several Ayurvedic formulations (Kumar et al, 1997). Allium sativum Aloe barbadensis Asparagus racemosus Cassia senna Curculigo orchioides Commiphora wightii Centalla asiatica Capsicum annum Chlorophytum arundinaceum Eclipta alba Fagopyrum esculentum Glycyrrhiza glabra Oenothera biennis

Panax pseudoginseng Plantago ovata Withania somnifera

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II. CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS Of the 2,50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 species are reported to have at least some medicinal value and around 5000 species have specific therapeutic value. They are classified according to the part used, habit, habitat, therapeutic value etc, besides the usual botanical classification.

1. Based on part used i) Whole plant: Boerhaavia diffusa, Phyllanthus neruri ii) Root: Dasamula iii) Stem:Tinospora cordifolia, Acorus calamus iv) Bark: Saraca asoca v) Leaf: Indigofera tinctoria, Lawsonia inermis, Aloe vera vi) Flower:Biophytum sensityvum, Mimusops elenji vii) Fruit: Solanum species viii) Seed: Datura stramonium

2. Based on habit i) ii) iii) iv) v)

Grasses: Cynodon dactylon Sedges: Cyperus rotundus Herbs : Vernonia cineria Shrubs: Solanum species Climbers: Asparagus racemosus

vi) Trees: Azadirachta indica 3. Based on habitat i) Tropical: Andrographis paniculata ii) Sub-tropical: Mentha arvensis iii) Temperate: Atropa belladona

4. Based on therapeutic value Antimalarial Anticancer Antiulcer Antidiabetic Anticholesterol Antiinflammatory Antiviral Antibacterial Antifungal Antiprotozoal Antidiarrhoeal Hypotensive Tranquilizing Anaesthetic Spasmolytic Diuretic Astringent Anthelmentic Cardiotonic Antiallergic Hepatoprotective

: Cinchona officinalis, Artemisia annua : Catharanthus roseus, Taxus baccata : Azadirachta indica, Glycyrrhiza glabra : Catharanthus roseus, Momordica charantia : Allium sativum : Curcuma domestica, Desmodium gangeticum : Acacia catechu : Plumbago indica : Allium sativum : Ailanthus sp., Cephaelis ipecacuanha : Psidium gujava, Curcuma domestica : Coleus forskohlii, Alium sativum : Rauvolfia serpentina : Erythroxylum coca : Atropa belladona, Hyoscyamus niger : Phyllanthus niruri, Centella asiatica : Piper betle, Abrus precatorius : Quisqualis indica, Punica granatum : Digitalis sp., Thevetia sp. : Nandina domestica, Scutellaria baicalensis : Silybum marianum, Andrographis paniculata

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5. Based on Ayurvedic formulations in which used a)

b)

c)

d)

The ten roots of the Dasamoola (Dasamoolam) i) Desmodium gangeticum (Orila) ii) Uraria lagopoides (Cheria orila) iii) Solanum jacquinii (Kantakari) iv) Solanum indicum (Cheruchunda) v) Tribulus terrestris (Njerinjil) vi) Aegle marmelos (Koovalam) vii) Oroxylum indicum (Palakapayyani) viii) Gmelina arborea (Kumizhu) ix) Steriospermum suaveolens (Pathiri) x) Premna spinosus (Munja) The ten flowers of the Dasapushpa (Dasapushpam) i) Biophytum sensitivum (Mukkutti) ii) Ipomea maxima (Thiruthali) iii) Eclipta prostrata (Kayyuniam) iv) Vernonia cineria (Poovamkurunnil) v) Evolvulus alsinoides (Vishnukranthi) vi) Cynodon dactylon (Karuka) vii) Emelia sonchifolia (Muyalcheviyan) viii) Curculigo orchioides (Nilappana) ix) Cardiospermum halicacabum (Uzhinja) x) Aerva lanata (Cherula) The four trees of the Nalpamara (Nalpamaram) i) Ficus racemosa (Athi) ii) Ficus microcarpa (Ithi) iii) Ficus relegiosa (Arayal) iv) Ficus benghalensis (Peral) The three fruits of the Triphala (Thriphalam) i) Phyllanthus emblica (Nellikka) ii) Terminalia bellerica (Thannikka) iii) Terminalia chebula (Kadukka)

6. Botanical classification This is the most comprehensive and scientific classification. The various medicinal plants are grouped below in table 7 according to their Class, Series, Order, Family, Genus and Species.

Table 7. Botanical classification of medicinal plants (Dey, 1984, modified) Family

Genus (species)

SUBDIVISION : ANGIOSPERMAE CLASS SUBCLASS Series

: I. DICOTYLEDONAE : 1. POLYGONAE : i. Thalamiflorae

Order Ranunculaceae

: a. Ranales Thalictrum (foliolosum) Coptis (teeta) Delphinium (denudatum) Aconitum (ferox, heterophyllum, napellus) Actaea (spicata) Paeonia (emodi) 11

Dilleniaceae Magnoliaceae Anonaceae Menispermaceae

Berberidaceae Nymphaeaceae Order Papaveraceae Fumariaceae Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Capparidaceae

Violaceae Bixaceae Flacourtiaceae Order Tamaricaceae Order Clusiaceae (Guttiferae) Ternstroemiaceae Dipterocarpaceae

Order Malvaceae

Sterculiaceae Tiliaceae Linaceae Erythroxylaceae Zygophyllaceae

Series

Dillenia (indica) Michelia (champaca) Cananga (odorata) Anona (squamosa) Tinospora (cordifolia) Anamirta (cocculus) Coscinium (fenestratum) Cocculus (villosus) Pericampylus (incanus) Cissampelos (pareira) Berberis (aristata, lycium, asiatica) Podophyllum (emodi) Nymphaea (lotus, nouchali) Euryale (ferox) Nelumbium (speciosum) : b. Parietales Papaver (rhoeas, somniferum) Argemone (mexicana) Hypecoum (procumbens) Corydalis (govaniana) Fumaria (officinalis) Brassica (nigra, campestris, juncea) Capsella (bursa-pastoris) Lepidium (sativum) Raphanus (sativus) Cleome (viscosa) Gynandropsis (pentaphylla) Maerua (arenaria) Crataeva (religiosa) Capparis (spinosa, aphylla) Viola (odorata) Ionidium (suffruticosum) Bixa (orellana) Gynocardia (odorata) : c. Caryophyllales Tamarix (gallica) : d. Guttiferales Garcinia (mangostana, indica, morella) Mesua (ferrea) Camellia (theifera) Dipterocarpus (turbinatus) Shorea (robusta) Hopea (odorata) Vateria (indica) : f. Malvales Althaea (officinalis) Malva (sylvestris) Sida (cordifolia) Pavonia (odorata) Hibiscus (sabdariffa, abelmoschus, esculentus, rosa-sinensis) Gossypium (herbaceum) Adansonia (digitata) Bombax (malabaricum) Helicteres (isora) Abroma (augusta) Cola (acuminata) Grewia (asiatica) Corchorus (capsularis, olitorius) Linum (usitatissimum) Erythroxylum (coca, monogynum) Tribulus (terrestris)

: ii. Disciflorae 12

Order Geraniaceae Oxalidaceae Balsaminaceae Rutaceae

Simarubaceae Burseraceae

Meliaceae

Order Celastraceae Rhamnaceae Vitaceae Order Sapindaceae Anacardiaceae

Moringaceae

Series Order Fabaceae (Papilionaceae)

Caesalpiniaceae

: a. Geraniales Geranium (robertianum) Oxalis (corniculata) Impatiens (sulcata) Ruta (graveolens) Peganum (harmala) Toddalia (aculeata) Citrus (medica, aurantium) Feronia (elephantum) Aegle (marmelos) Ailanthus (excelsa) Samadera (indica) Picrasma (quassioides) Boswellia (serrata) Garuga (pinnata) Balsamodendron (mukul, myrrha) Canarium (commune) Naregamia (alata) Melia (azadirachta, azedarach) Amoora (rohituka) Carapa (moluccensis) Soymida (febrifuga) : b. Celastrales Celastrus (paniculatus) Zizyphus (jujuba) Vitis (vinifera) : c. Sapindales Cardiospermum (halicacabum) Schleichera (trijuga) Sapindus (trifoliatus) Pistacia (integerrima, lentiscus, terebinthus, vera) Mangifera (indica) Anacardium (occidentale) Melanorrhoea (usitata) Semecarpus (anacardium) Holigarna (longifolia) Moringa (oleifera)

: iii. Calyciflorae : a. Rosales Trigonella (foenum-groecum) Melilotus (officinalis) Indigofera (tinctoria) Psoralea (corylifolia) Sesbania (aegyptiaca) Sesbania (grandiflora) Astragalus (verus) Alhagi (maurorum) Eschynomene (aspera) Desmodium (gangeticum) Abrus (precatorius) Lens (esculenta) Lathyrus (sativus) Mucuna (pruriens) Erythrina (indica) Butea (frondosa) Clitoria (ternatea) Dolichos (biflorus) Pterocarpus (marsupium, santalinus, glabra) Caesalpinia (bonducella, sappan) Cassia (fistula, occidentalis, sophera, tora, obovata, alata, angustifolia) Hardwickia (pinnata) Saraca (indica)

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Alangiaceae

Tamarindus (indica) Bauhinia (variegata) Entada (scandens) Mimosa (pudica) Adenanthera (pavonina) Acacia (farnesiana, arabica, catechu) Glycyrrhiza (glabra) Prunus (amygdalus, communis) Agrimonia (eupatoria) Rosa (damascena, centifolia) Cydonia (vulgaris) Bryophyllum (calycinum) Kalanchoe (laciniata) Drosera (burmanni, peltata) Liquidambar (orientalis) Altingia (excelsa) : b. Myrtales Terminalia (catappa, bellerica, chebula, arjuna) Melaleuca (leucandendron) Psidium (gujava) Eugenia (jambolana) Barringtonia (acutangula) Careya (arborea) Caryophyllus (aromaticus) Eucalyptus (globulus) Myrtus (communis) Ammania (baccifera) Woodfordia (floribunda) Lawsonia (alba) Punica (Granatum) Trapa (bispinosa) : c. Passiflorales Carica (papaya) Trichosanthes (dioica) Lagenaria (vulgaris) Luffa (acutangula) Benincasa (cerifera) Momordica (charantia) Cucumis (melo, sativus) Citrullus (colocynthis, vulgaris) Cephalandra (indica) Cucurbita (pepo) Bryonopsis (laciniosa) Corallocarpus (epigaeus) Opuntia (dillenii) : d. Umbellales Hydrocotyle (asiatica) Apium ( graveolens) Carum (carvi, copticum) Pimpinella (anisum) Foeniculum (vulgare) Ferula (narthex, alliacea, foetida, galbaniflua) Peucedanum (graveolens) Coriandrum (sativum) Cuminum (cyminum) Daucus (carota) Petroselinum (sativum) Alangium (lamarckii)

SUBCLASS

: 2. GAMOPETALAE

Mimosaceae

Rosaceae

Crassulaceae Droseraceae Hamamelidaceae Order Combretaceae Myrtaceae

Lythraceae

Onagraceae Order Caricaceae Cucurbitaceae

Cactaceae Order Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)

Series Order Rubiaceae

: i. Inferae : a. Rubiales Anthocephalus (cadamba) 14

Order Valerianaceae Compositae (Asteraceae)

Series Order Ericaceae Plumbaginaceae Order Myrsinaceae Order Sapotaceae Ebenaceae Symplocaceae Styraceae

Series Order Oleaceae Salvadoraceae Apocynaceae

Uncaria (gambier) Cinchona (calisaya, officinalis, succirubra) Hymenodictyon (excelsum) Oldenlandia (corymbosa) Ophiorrhiza (mungos) Randia (dumetorum) Gardenia (lucida, gummifera) Canthium (parviflorum) Pavetta (indica) Coffea (arabica, robusta) Morinda (citrifolia) Paederia (foetida) Rubia (cordifolia) Cephaelis (lpecacuanha) : b. Asterales Valeriana (wallichii) Nardostachys (jatamansi) Eupatorium (ayapana, triplinerve) Blumea (lacera) Helianthus (annuus, tuberosus) Siegesbeckia (orientalis) Enhydra (fluctuans) Eclipata (alba) Guizotia (abyssinica) Achillea (millefolium) Anthemis (nobilis) Anacyclus (pyrethrum) Matricaria (chamomila) Artemisia (maritima, vulgaris) Calendula (officinalis) Saussurea (lappa) Carthamus (tinctorius) Cichorium (intybus) Taraxacum (officinale) Lactuca (scariola) Tagetes (erecta)

: ii. Heteromerae : a. Ericales Gaultheria (fragrantissima) Plumbago (zeylanica, rosea) : b. Primulales Embelia (ribes, robusta) : c. Ebenales Bassia (latifolia) Bassia (butyracea) Mimusops (elengi) Diospryros (embryopteris) Symplocos (racemosa) Styrax (benzoin)

: iii. Bicarpellatae : a. Gentianales Jasminum (sambac, grandiflorum) Nyctanthes (arbor-tristis) Fraxinus (floribunda, excelsior) Salvadora (persica) Rauvolfia (serpentina) Alstonia (scholaris) Holarrhena (antidysenterica) Wrightia (zeylanica) Nerium (odorum) Thevetia (neriifolia) Strophanthus (sp.) 15

Plantaginaceae

Ichnocarpus (frutescens) Hemidesmus (indicus) Oxystelma (esculentum) Calotropis (gigantea) Daemia (extensa) Gymnema (sylvestre) Tylophora (asthmatica) Strychnos (ignatii, nux-vomica, potatorum) Fagraea (fragrans) Exacum (bicolor) Enicostemma (littorale) Canscora (decussata) Gentiana (kurroo) Swertia (chirata) : b. Polymoniales Cordia (myxa) Heliotropium (indicum) Onosma (echioides, bracteatum) Argyreia (speciosa) Ipomoea (hederacea, digitata, turpethum, purga) Cuscuta (reflexa) Convolvulus (scammonia) Solanum (nigrum, dulcamara, indicum, melongena) Capsicum (frutescens) Withania (somnifera, coagulans) Atropa (belladonna) Datura (stramonium, fastuosa) Hyoscyamus (niger) Nicotiana (tabacum) : c. Personales Herpestis (monniera) Picrorhiza (kurrooa) Oroxylum (indicum) Pedalium (murex) Sesamum (indicum) Hygrophila (spinosa) Andrographis (paniculata) Adhatoda (vasica) Rhinacanthus (communis) : d. Lamiales Gmelina (arborea) Clerodendron (infortunatum) Ocimum (basilicum) Ocimum (sanctum) Mentha (arvensis) Origanum (vulgare) Hyssopus (officinalis) Lallemantia (royleana) Marrubium (vulgare) Plantago (ovata)

SUBCLASS

: 3. MONOCHLAMIDEAE

Asclepiadaceae

Loganiaceae Gentianaceae

Order Boraginaceae Convolvulaceae

Solanaceae

Order Scrophulariaceae Bignoniaceae Pedaliaceae Acanthaceae

Order Verbenaceae Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

Series Nyctaginaceae Amaranthaceae Chenopodiaceae

: i. Curvembryeae Boerhaavia (repens) Amaranthus (spinosus) Achyranthes (aspera) Chenopodium (botrys, ambrosioides)

Series

: ii. Multiovulatae aquaticae

Polygonaceae

Rheum (emodi)

Series

: iii. Multiovulatae terrestris

Aristolochiaceae

Aristolochia (indica)

Series

: iv. Microembryeae 16

Piperaceae

Piper (cubeba, longum, chaba, betle, nigrum)

Series

: v. Daphnales

Myristicaceae Lauraceae

Myristica (fragrans, malabarica) Cinnamomum (tamala, zeylanicum, glanduliferum) Litssea (sebifera)

Series

: vi. Achlamydesporae

Thymelaeaceae Santalaceae

Aquilaria (agallocha) Santalum (album)

Series

: vii. Unisexuales

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia (pilulifera, neriifolia, antiquorum) Phyllanthus (emblica, urinaria, niruri) Jatropha (curcas) Aleurites (moluccana) Croton (tiglium) Acalypha (indica) Mallotus (phillippinensis) Ricinus (communis) Baliospermum (montanum ) Manihot (utilissima) Cannabis (sativa) Morus (indica) Ficus (benghalensis, elastica, religiosa, hispida, cunia, glomerata, carica) Antiaris (toxicaria) Artocarpus (integrifolia)

Cannabinaceae Moraceae

CLASS Series Juglandaceae Myricaceae Fagaceae Salicaceae Orchidaceae

: II. MONOCOTYLEDONAE : i. Microspermae Juglans (regia) Myrica (nagi) Quercus (infectoria) Salix (caprea) Acampe (papillosa) Eulophia (campestris) Orchis (mascula)

Series

: ii. Epigynae

Musaceae Zingiberaceae

Musa (sapientum) Curcuma (angustifolia, aromatica, zedoaria, amada, longa) Kaempferia (rotunda, galanga) Hedychium (spicatum) Amomum (subulatam) Zingiber (officinale, zerumbet) Costus (speciosus) Elettaria (cardamomum) Alpinia (galanga, calcarata, allughas) Maranta (arundinacea) Ananas (sativa) Iris (foetidissima) Crocus (sativus) Curculigo (orchioides) Crinum (asiaticum) Agave (americana)

Marantaceae Bromeliaceae Iridaceae Amaryllidaceae

Series

: iii. Coronarieae

Liliaceae

Smilax (ferox) Asparagus (adscendens, sarmentosus) Allium (cepa, sativum) Urginea (indica) Scilla (indica) Colchicum (luteum) Gloriosa (superba)

Series

: iv. Calycinae

Aracaceae

Areca (catechu)

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(Palmae)

Pandaneae

Phoenix (sylvestris, dactylifera) Calamus (draco) Borassus (flabelliformis) Cocos (nucifera) Lodoicea (seychellarum) Pandanus (fascicularis, odoratissimus)

Series

: v. Nudiflorae

Aroideae (Araceae)

Pistia (stratiotes) Colocasia (antiquorum) Alocasia (indica) Scindapsus (officinalis) Acorus (calamus)

Series

: vi. Glumaceae

Cyperaceae Gramineae (Poaceae)

Cyperus (scariosus, rotundus) Cymbopogon (citratus, flexuosus, martinii, muricatus, nardus, schoenanthus) Bambusa (arundinacea) Cynodon (dactylon) Hordeum (vulgare) Oryza (sativa) Triticum (sativum) Saccharum (officinarum)

SUBDIVISION

: GYMNOSPERMAE

Pinaceae (Coniferae)

Juniperus (communis) Pinus (longifolia) Cedrus (deodara) Abies (webbiana)

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III. CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS Most of medicinal plants, even today, are collected from wild. The continued commercial exploitation of these plants has resulted in receding the population of many species in their natural habitat. Vacuum is likely to occur in the supply of raw plant materials that are used extensively by the pharmaceutical industry as well as the traditional practitioners. Consequently, cultivation of these plants is urgently needed to ensure their availability to the industry as well as to people associated with traditional system of medicine. If timely steps are not taken for their conservation, cultivation and mass propagation, they may be lost from the natural vegetation for ever. In situ conservation of these resources alone cannot meet the ever increasing demand of pharmaceutical industry. It is, therefore, inevitable to develop cultural practices and propagate these plants in suitable agroclimatic regions. Commercial cultivation will put a check on the continued exploitation from wild sources and serve as an effective means to conserve the rare floristic wealth and genetic diversity. It is necessary to initiate systematic cultivation of medicinal plants in order to conserve biodiversity and protect endangered species. In the pharmaceutical industry, where the active medicinal principle cannot be synthesised economically, the product must be obtained from the cultivation of plants. Systematic conservation and large scale cultivation of the concerned medicinal plants are thus of great importance. Efforts are also required to suggest appropriate cropping patterns for the incorporation of these plants into the conventional agricultural and forestry cropping systems. Cultivation of this type of plants could only be promoted if there is a continuous demand for the raw materials. There are at least 35 major medicinal plants that can be cultivated in India and have established demand for their raw material or active principles in the international trade (table). It is also necessary to develop genetically superior planting material for assured uniformity and desired quality and resort to organised cultivation to ensure the supply of raw material at growers end. Hence, small scale processing units too have to be established in order that the farmer is assured of the sale of raw material. Thus, cultivation and processing should go hand in hand in rural areas. In order to initiate systematic cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants high yielding varieties have to be selected (table 8). In the case of wild plants, their demonstration would require careful development work. Sometimes high yielding varieties have also to be developed by selective breeding or clonal micropropagation. The selected propagation materials have to be distributed to the farmer either through nurseries or seed banks. Systematic cultivation needs specific cultural practices and agronomical requirements. These are species specific and are dependent on soil, water and climatic conditions. Hence research and development work has to be done to formulate Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) which should include proper cultivation techniques, harvesting methods, safe use of fertilizers and pestisides and waste disposal. Table 8. New varieties of medicinal plants developed in India (Gupta, 1993) Crop Psyllium Plantago ovata

Variety Gujarat Isabgol-1 Gujarat Isabgol-2 (GI-2)

Characters (Institution where developed) High seed yield (1t/ha) with synchronous maturing of seed (GAU, Anand) Seed yield of 1t/ha, moderately resistant to downy mildew disease(GAU, Anand)

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Opium poppy Papaver somniferum

Jawahar Aphim-16 (JA-16) Trishna (IC-42) Udaipur Opium (UO-285) NRBI-3 Kirtiman (NOP-4) Sweta (GS-24) Shyama (IS-34)

Sarpagandha Rauvolfia serpentina

RS-1

Dioscorea floribunda

FB(C)-1

Arka-Upkar Khasi-kateri Solanum viarum

Glaxo IIHR 2n-11

Kangaro kateri Solanum laciniatum

EC-113465

Henbane Hyocyamus niger

IC-66 Aela

Egyptian Henbane Hyocyamus muticus

Autotetraploid

White flowered with serrated petals, produces oval capsules maturing early at 105-110 days for lancing. Yield 66kg of latex averaging 10% of morphine (JNKVV, Mandsur) Medium dwarf, pink flowered, serrated petals. Produces large bumble-shaped capsules, high latex and morphine content.(over JA-16) (NBPGR, Delhi) High latex yield in Rajasthan tract (58kg/ha) with high morphine content (12.3%) and high seed yield (1.2t/ha) (RU, Udaipur) High latex yield in central and eastern UP. Latex yield 47-57.54kg/ha. (NBRI, Lucknow) Latex yield 45.84kg/ha, morphine content 11.94% in eastern U.P. Moderately resistant to downy mildew (NDUA & T, Faizabad) With pale white peduncle, produces 66.5kg latex/ha with 18% morphine (CIMAP) Foliage erect and incised, bears black flowering stalk. Produces 78.1% latex with 15.5% morphine (CIMAP). High seed germination (50%). Root yields 2.5t/ha in 18 months. Roots carry 1.45-1.80% of total alkaloids; half of it yields reserpine + serpentine combined (JNKVV, Indore) A composite culture, produces fast growing vines relatively free from diseases and pest attack; produces 50t/ha of fresh tubers in 2 years containing 3.5% diosgenin (IIHR, Bangalore) Selection through hybridisation, producing 60t of fresh tubers containing 3.5-4.0% diosgenin (IIHR, Bangalore) Plants devoid of spines, produces high berry yield at high density planting containing 2.5-3.0% solasodine (Glaxo, India). Completely devoid of spines, produces high berry yield at high density planting containing 2.5-3% solasodine (IIHR, Bangalore) Long duration crop (300 days) suitable for temperate regions. High solasodine content in leaves (1.8%) and mature berries (4%) (YSPHU, Solan) Short duration (100 days), early rabi crop in plains. Yields 2.5t/ha of dry herb with minimum 0.05% total alkaloids (NBPGR, Delhi) A mutant characterised by yellow flower petals, produces 7.5t/ha dry herb or 23kg total alkaloids/ha (CIMAP) Vigorously growing and high seed fertile mutant, produces 4.5t/ha of dry herb or 23kg total alkaloids/ha (CIMAP)

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Senna ALFT-2 Cassia angustifolia Japanese mint MAS-1 Mentha arvensis var. piperascens MAS-2 Hyb-77

Siwalik EC-41911

Ocimum gratissimum Thymol basil O. viride Sacred basil O. sanctum

Clocimum Thymol type EC-1828893

Late flowering type, tailored to produce purely leaf crop in one harvest at 100 days. Foliage sennoside content (6.0%) (GAU, Anand) Yields fresh herb of 37.2t/ha in 2 cuttings; containing 0.8-1.0% oil with high leaf/stem ratio. Matures 10-15 days early. Oil yield 290kg/ha containing 83% menthol (CIMAP) Fresh herb yield 69t/ha, oil 348kg/ha (CIMAP) A tall vigorous, compact growing type, cross of MAS-2 x MA-2. Produces 78.2t/ha fresh herb, oil yield 486kg/ha with 81.5% menthol. Highly resistant to leaf spot and rust diseases (CIMAP) Introduced from China, produces compact bushy growth with thick leathery leaves, high herb and oil yield. A progeny selection of interspecific cross between M. arvensis and M. piperita in USSR. High herbage yield with high oil content (0.8-1%); oil contains 70-80% menthol (YSPHU, Solan). High herbage yield with high oil content, 75% eugenol (RRL, Jammu). Herb yield 3t/ha, 59kg/ha oil/annum. (CIMAP, Lucknow) Superior selection with high oil yield 55l/ha in 110 days containing 53% eugenol and 19% caryophylline (NBPGR, Delhi)

Taking into consideration the requirements of the plants selected, an agrotechnological package has to be developed to suit the infrastructural facilities available. Research and development work has also to be carried out in the following areas (Silva, 1997). 1. Optimisation of agronomical conditions for cultivation 2. Training in safe fertiliser and pesticide use 3. Development of fast growing varieties with disease resistance 4. Determination of maturity and time of harvesting 5. No. of economically viable harvests 6. Methods of harvesting. Decision on a limited scale of exploitation of medicinal plants from wild sources has to be based on accurate inventories about the kinds of plant resources, abundance and the feasibility of harvesting without damage to the ecosystem. In case potential candidates identified are not abundantly available, cultivation of them through agroforestry and community forestry programmes will have to be initiated. In this regard, development of industries based on medicinal plants can be included as a priority area as niche markets for these are already available. Organic Farming In the recent times, agricultural scenario is witnessing a trend towards organic farming. It is seen that agricultural products produced through organic farming, without using any inorganic fertilisers and pesticides, fetch high demand and price in the international market.. Organic farming has its root in Nature and it makes use of only organic materials. It observes and learns from nature. It believes that soil has life and cares about its fertility. It protects the flora and fauna of the soil. Organic farming is not for a single crop but it envisages the entire farm. The main objective of organic farming includes mulching, crop 21

rotation, cover cropping green manuring, animal waste, composting, bio-gas slurry, biofertilisers and organic recycling. The energy sources are windmills, solar panels, smallscale hydroelectric projects and biogas. The changeover from inorganic to organic farming is to be carried out only systematically and carefully. Organic farming can be adopted in crops too by decreasing the dose of inorganic fertilisers rather than an immediate removal and adopting organic farming practices timely and correctly. Farmers have to be trained in all aspects of organic farming including obtaining certification from associations that do the monitoring, starting from cultivation to final harvesting. As chemicals cannot be used as fertilizers and pest control agents, the cultivation is labour intensive requiring labour for weeding and other farming activities. Hence, developing countries, which have cheap labour and unpolluted land, can opt for organic cultivation. Organic manure has to be prepared which leads to environment friendly methods of organic waste disposal. Organic farming will reduce environment pollution, toxic effects due to use of pesticides and minerals and problems of biodiversity conservation. The trend for green products is also increasing and it is expected that the industrialised countries will insist on ecolabelling of products in tune with ISO 14000 as a condition of import. This will mean that any product produced has to be certified to ensure that no ecological damage what so ever has been caused during the production process.

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IV. PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION Medicinal principles are present in different parts of the plant like root, stem, bark, heartwood, leaf, flower, fruit or plant exudates. These medicinal principles are separated by different processes; the most common being extraction. Extraction is the separation of the required constituents from plant materials using a solvent. In the case of medicinal plants, the extraction procedure falls into two categories (Paroda, 1993). a) Where it is sufficient to achieve within set limits equilibrium of concentration between drug components and the solution. Eg. Tinctures, decoction, teas, etc. b) Where it is necessary to extract the drug to exhaustion, ie., until all solvent extractables are removed by the solvent. Both the methods are employed depending on the requirement although in industry the latter method is mostly used. In all industrial procedures, the raw material is pre-treated with solvent outside the extractor before changing the latter. This prevents sudden bulk volume changes (which are the main cause of channelling during extraction) and facilitates the breaking up of the cell walls to release the extractables. To facilitate the extraction, the solvent should diffuse inside the cell and the substance must be sufficiently soluble in the solvent. The ideal solvent for complete extraction is one that is most selective, has the best capacity for extraction and is compatible with the properties of the material to be extracted. These parameters are predetermined experimentally. The cost and availability of the solvent are also taken into account. Alcohol, though widely used, because of its great extractive power it is often the least selective, in that it extracts all soluble constituents. Alcohol in various ratios is used to minimise selectivity. The ideal alcohol ratio for woody or bark material is 75%. For leafy material, it is often less than 50% thus avoiding extraction of the chlorophyll which makes purification difficult. Some materials such as alkaloids being soluble in acids, their extraction is facilitated by adjusting the pH in the acidic range. A number of alkaloids can be extracted easily with hydrocarbons after they have been released from combination with organic acids by grinding with alkali. It is first ground with moist calcium oxide and extracted with chloroform. A large number of alkaloids can be extracted directly with aqueous acids, organic or inorganic acids, and the alkalised extracts counter extracted with hydrocarbons or other apolar solvents. Experiment used for extraction with solvents usually comprise an extraction vessel with a heating jacket for steam heating or fitted with electrical devices, a condenser in reflux position, a solvent reservoir, a facility to convert to reboiler position or a separate reboiler and a short column for solvent recovery. Some times, sophisticated and costly equipment like the Carousel or the Inoxa extractor is employed. Technology for the manufacture of standardised extracts and phytochemicals is available and there are many extracts already in the international market as drugs. A drug such as an extract of Centella asiatica can be manufactured as an extract containing a standard quantity of asiaticoside. Similarly for senna a standardised extract of which, containing a standard quantity of sennosides a and b could easily be produced with equipment that can be designed and constructed in most developing countries (Wijesekera, 1991). The promotion and development of processing of medicinal and aromatic plants have gained momentum recently in many developing countries. Green consumerism and resurgence of interest for plant based products, liberalised and free market economy, increasing awareness about biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of natural resources coupled with poor socio-economic conditions of native populations are ground realities for planning and harnessing the low-cost and purpose oriented process technologies.

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UNIDO has developed a Polyvalent Pilot Plant with a view to enabling developing countries to upgrade their technology for the processing of medicinal and aromatic plants. This plant incorporates all salient features of a low cost, efficient, small capacity factory which can carry out solvent extraction, solvent percolation, concentration of miscella, solvent recovery, steam distillation and oil separation (UNIDO, 1991; Silva, 1997). The design and fabrication of the process equipment need not be over emphasised, as even if a good design is available for adaptation, it must be done to fit the given situation. The polyvalent plant is characterised by simplicity of design, installation, operation, maintenance and repair. Some of its features are 1. Modular construction so as to permit increase in capacity and function by duplicating or adding modules. 2. Simultaneous processing for more than one product, such as extraction at one end, production of solid extract or oleoresins at the other. 3. Standardised or optimised process control and measuring units, pumps and other ancillaries can be easily replaced. 4. All plumbing and electrical wiring are simple and easily accessible. 5. Multipurpose uses. Eg. Solvent/aqueous extraction, continuous extraction, preparation of solid extract and oleoresins, essential oil distillation, fractionation of essential oils and production of absolutes and concretes or even processing of other phytoproducts.

Formulation and Industrial Utilisation Medicinal plants are used as raw materials for extraction of active constituents in pure form (eg. alkaloids like quinine and quinidine from cinchona bark, emetine from ipecacuanha root, glycosides from digitalis leaves, sennosides from senna leaves), as precursors for synthetic vitamins or steroids, and as preparations for herbal and indigenous medicines. Products such as ginseng, valerian and liquorice roots are part of the herbal and health food market, as well as the food flavours, fragrance and cosmetic industries. Certain plant products are industrially exploited like liquorice in confectionery and tobacco, papaine as meat tenderiser, quinine as soft drink tonic and cinchona as wine flavour. A large quantity of medicinal plant material is used in the preparation of herbal and medicinal teas, eg. chamomile. These herbal and food uses are of great importance, also to the exporters from developing countries. Hundreds of medicinal plants are items of commerce, however relatively small countries are used in formulated herbal remedies. Several formulations like herbal teas, extracts, decoctions, infusions, tinctures, etc are prepared from medicinal plants (Kraisintu, 1997). 1. Herbal teas, Herbal remedies: herbal tea or infusion mixtures are mixture of unground or suitably ground medicinal plants to which drug plant extracts, ethereal oils or medicinal substances can be added. Infusion mixtures should be as homogenous as possible. 2. Drug extracts: They are preparations obtained by extracting drugs of a certain particle size with suitable extraction agents (menstrua). The extract obtained after separation of the liquid from the drug residue is called miscella. It may already represent the final liquid dose form eg. as a so called fluid extract, or be used as an intermediary product which is to be further processed as quickly as possible. 3. Aqueous drug extracts: The following degrees of comminution are used for the extract depending on the type of plant parts. Leaves, flowers and herbs shredded (4000mm); woods, barks and roots shredded (2800mm); fruits and seeds (2000mm). Alkaloid containing drugs powdered (700mm). 3.1. Decoctions: The drug in the prescribed comminution is put in to water at a temperature above 90C. The container is suspended in a water bath and maintained at this temperature for 30 minutes, with repeated stirring. The mixture is then strained while still hot.

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3.2. Infusions: One part of the comminuted drug is kneaded several times in a mortar with 3-5 parts of water and left to stand for 15 minutes. The rest of the boiling water is then poured on to the mixture, which is suspended in a container in a water bath and kept for 5 minutes, with repeated stirring at a temperature above 90C. The mixture is covered and left to stand until cool. 3.3. Macerates: The comminuted drug is left to stand, with occasional stirring, for 30 minutes after the required quantity of water has been poured on to it at room temperature. The extract is then strained and made up to the prescribed weight with rinsings. 3.4. Tinctures: Tinctures are extracts from drug plants prepared with ethanol of varying concentration, ether or mixtures of these, perhaps with certain additives, in such a way that one part of drug is extracted with more than two parts, but at most ten parts, of extraction liquid. 3.5. Fluid extracts: Like tinctures, they are liquid preparations, the difference being that they are more concentrated. 3.6. Dry extracts: They are usually very hygroscopic and should therefore be ground and mixed under conditions which exclude moisture as much as possible. Intermediate and end product must also be stored under dry conditions. There are also liquid, semisolid, solid and controlled release formulations or preparations. The other dose forms are injections, implants, ocular preparations, inhalations and transdermal systems. Liquid formulations may be solutions, emulsions, colloids or suspensions in the increasing order of particle size. They may be intended for administration parenterally, orally or topically including administration into body cavities. Homogeneity for the formulations is very important, particularly where the active ingredient is present in lower concentration. A generalised production scheme include the following (Kraisintu, 1997): 1. Pre-processing: Washing, particle size optimisation, moisture reduction, refinement or concentration. 2. Solublisation: Insolubles removal, product stabilisation. 3. Primary extraction: Primary contaminations removal. 4. Purification: Secondary contaminations removal, decolourisation, concentration, recemization 5. Derivatization (optional): Chemical modification. 6. Drying(optional): Lyophilization or spray drying Compounding of drugs According to the guidelines of formulations, a prescription is composed of four different component parts of ingredients as given below (Jiaxiang, 1997). 1. The principal ingredient which provides the principal curative action 2. The adjuvent which strengthen the principal action 3. The auxillary ingredient which relieves secondary symptoms or tempers the action of principle ingredient 4. The conductant which directs action to the affected conduit or site. It may also be a less significant auxillary ingredient. The introduction of a polyvalent pilot plant has been the most significant contribution of UNIDO to the development of the industrial utilisation of medicinal and aromatic plants in developing countries. The gap that prevented the transfer of processes and products developed on a laboratory to industry can be bridged by introducing pilot plant processing facility and multidisciplinary teamwork. Many research and development institutions in developing countries lacked the support of their engineering counter parts and most research therefore was confined to academic pursuits. If one is to undertake commercial production of herbal medicines, the vital role played by chemical engineers in

25

translating laboratory findings to industrial scale outputs through pilot scale process parameter development has to be recognised. Developing countries need to build up technological and scientific capabilities to develop and improve the production of medicinal principles for use in their countries and to conduct R&D to develop products for export thereby, enabling countries to supply new markets which are being created as a result of consumer orientation of societies, increasing affluence and demand for green products. Sustainable use of this renewable natural resource will not only contribute to rural industrial development and poverty alleviation but also to biodiversity and forest conservation. Requirement for plant based industries Major requirements for establishing medicinal and aromatic plant based industries in developing countries are the following (Silva, 1997): - Availability of natural forest resources capable of being sustainably harvested. - Initiation of systematic cultivation programmes - Selection of plants for processing based on facilities available and marketability - Fabrication or procurement of equipment, provision of required services (water, energy, chemical) - Transfer of expertise on agronomical practices, harvesting and post-harvest treatment. - Training in methods of processing and quality control - Actual processing with assistance from experts and NGO’s and international agencies - Packaging and storage of finished products - Marketing outlets In some cases the primary processed product could be used as a raw material for downstream processing such as production of medicinal principles, aroma chemicals, isolates, flavours, perfumes, extraction of pure chemicals and other consumer products. The following aspects have to be taken into consideration in designing country specific programmes for implementation. - Suitability of climate and soil conditions - Availability of raw materials - Economic benefit, if any from export as well as import substitution - Factors that hinder systematic cultivation and industrial production. - Appropriate technologies that could be absorbed - Prospects for regional, inter regional and global co-operation - Inter agency co-operation and collaboration - Other issues such as conservation, energy, employment generation and involvement of women.

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V. STORAGE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS OR CRUDE DRUGS Dry extracts are usually very hygroscopic and should therefore be ground, mixed under conditions, which exclude moisture as much as possible. Intermediate and end products must also be stored under dry conditions. Annealing or sealing of the products in suitable moisture tight synthetic foils has proved a good method for this. Requirement of packaging materials The general requirements of packaging materials are the following (Kraisintu, 1997) 1. Economical or low cost 2. Impermeable as glass or metal or of acceptable permeability to moisture, gases, volatile solvents etc. 3. Non reactive-relatively inert with no extraction, exchange or interaction 4. Easy to manufacture in a wide range of shapes, preferably by a number of manufacturing processes. 5. Easy to decorate and /or print by a range of processes 6. Good production line efficiency-performance, with the minimum of rejects or wastage. 7. Effective as a pack(container and closure), i.e., easy to open and reclose and use if multidose; or open if single dose, whilst meeting any special requirements such as child resistance, tamper evidence or resistance, etc. 8. Easy to produce and maintain clean 9. Preferably readily available both in terms of source of supply for raw materials and as a converted item component from several suppliers. 10. Environmentally friendly 11. Able to optimise use of space when stacked or during transportation. Types of Packing Materials The common types of packaging materials currently available are given below (Kraisintu, 1997) 1. Glass: It can be found as several variants such as treated soda glass, soda glass and non parenteral. 2. Metals: A variety of metals including tin plate(tin coated mild steel) tin free steel, aluminium, aluminium alloys are widely used in packaging, being found as rigid containers, collapsible containers, aluminium foils, metalised coatings etc. 3. Plastics: There are five economical materials for rigid type of containers i.e., those based on polyethylene (PE), polypropylene(PP), Polystyrene(PS), PVC and polyester. 4. Elastomeric materials: Elastomers can be found as a wide range of basic materials (i.e., natural rubber, synthetic polyisoprene, neoprene, nitryl, butyl, including bromo-and chloro butyl, ethylene propylene diene modified (EPDM), acid silicone elastomers.)

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VI. QUALITY AND EVALUATION A major lacuna in Ayurveda is the lack of drug standardisation, information and quality control. Most of the Ayurvedic medicines are in the form of crude extracts which are a mixture of several ingredients and the active principles when isolated individually fail to give desired activity. This implies that the activity of the extract is the synergistic effect of its varies components. In the absence of pharmacopeic data on the various plant extracts, it is not possible to isolate or standardise on the active contents having the desired effects. Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia compiled on modern lines and updated periodically is an urgent requirement. Research on the rationale and methodology of Ayurvedic medical practice; isolation of active constituents and their development into new therapeutics; standardisation and validation of known herbal medicines and other related aspects are needed (Sharma, 1997). These are some problems concerning the proper identity of a number of drug species. In many cases, a single plant species has several different commercial or medicinal names in different regions. Several distinct species are often used under the same drug name. Another problem relates to adulteration in the market samples. In other words, authentication of the botanical identity and ascertaining the genuineness of drug is great concern in practical situation. To some extent, it can be overcome by drug characterisation which is done by estimating their active principles, recording the anatomical features under microscope and their curative effects by clinical trials. When the botanical identity of the plant is controversial, it is better to go for estimation of the therapeutic agent responsible for the curative effect ascribed to the species. The species rich in the ascribed compound should be taken as the genuine drug, those with relatively small amounts may be accepted as substitute of the original drug, and those lacking the required constituents may be rejected. Quality control of the phytoproducts for human consumption and world market can be ensured by maintaining the quality of raw material adequacy of processing technology and quality of the finished products. Thus, the quality concept commences right from the choice of authentic and improved seeds (varieties) to the post harvest treatment of the raw material and to the process control for avoiding contamination. As such for developing phytoproducts, WHO’s, Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) must be followed to satisfy the ISO 9000 certification. Recently, ISO 14000 certification has also become necessary to safeguard the environment. This means certifying that the product has been developed without inflicting ecological damage whatsoever. In general, during the drug production process, the raw materials are subjected to macroscopic and microscopic examination and physicochemical parameters such as ash values, analysis of ash for major elements such as Sodium, Potassium and Calcium, alcohol soluble and water soluble extractive values and fluorescence analysis, quantitative estimation of phytoconstituents such as total tannins, total glycosides, total alkaloids, total resins and total sugars of the raw materials as well as the formulations was carried out. The formulations were also evaluated for the general parameters such as organoleptic properties, pH, viscosity, specific gravity, optical rotation and refractive index. High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) technique was employed to obtain characteristic HPTLC fingerprints of the individual raw materials and formulations. Using the spectral patterns of the separated components, the presence of certain raw materials in the formulations could also be established. Batch to batch variation was also studied using HPTLC fingerprinting technique.

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General scheme for quality assurance of crude drugs and raw materials The general scheme for quality assurance of crude drugs and raw materials as suggested by Pei-Gen and Hui-zhen (1997) is given below. 1. Importance of quality assurance of crude drugs and raw material: a) Guarantee the best final pharmaceutical products. b) Environmental protection c) Sustainable utilisation and development of natural resource 2. Criteria of good quality: a) Good efficacy- high active ingredient, high yield b) Good safety-less toxicity and side effects, minimum pesticide residues, minimum heavy metals c) Purity d) Stability 3. Genebank conservation (see also table 9): a) Biodiversity conservation b) To store plant germplasm for future uses c) To make germplasm available to create new cultivars d) Insitu conservation- genebanks of medicinal and aromatic plants in Asia e) Invitro conservation f) Breeding 4. Biotechnology a) Plant cell culture eg. Digitalis, Catharanthus b) Hairy root culture eg. Salvia, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Datura stramoniun, Artemesia annua c) Tissue culture eg. Aloe, Crocus sativa, Mentha d) Genetic engineering: Isolation and purification of an antifungal protein from Phytolacca americana against American ginseng pathogens and synthesis of its gene and expression in E. coli. 5. Suitable growth region: In order to get higher quality of crude drugs and raw materials selection of the most suitable growth region for relevant medicinal plant is quite important. According to the ecological conditions, flora and other criteria, several regions of crude drug development have been identified. 6. GAP: Good Agrotechnological Practices. Large cultivation of medicinal plants relies upon strong and continuing research. Plant varieties with an abundance of desired constituents can be reproduced and improved upon under cultivation even in an entirely different area. Eg. Cultivation of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolia) in China. Attempt should be made to select appropriate region based on similar ecological conditions to introduce good cultivated variety, improve yield of the desired secondary metabolite and reduce the undesirable constituents. 7. Non polluted cultivation: In order to protect the environment, to sustainably utilise the resources and to get a good quality of crude drug, non-polluted agrotechnology is rapidly developed in recent years. These products are commonly called as “Green crude drugs” This involve biological control of insects and pathogens and use of botanical pesticides for the control of pest and diseases. 8. Post harvest technology: Right time harvesting, good processing, good storage, extraction or distillation, quality control.

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Table 9. Genebanks of medicinal and aromatic plants in Asia (Haq, 1993) Country China India

Collections 2500 1400

Korea Malaysia

850 450

Nepal Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand

340 220 200 100

Institutions IMPLAD Beijing and its 3 stations NBPGR, New Delhi; CIMAP Lucknow; AMPRS Odakkali Medicinal plants gardens National Research council and Kuala Lumpur city council gardens Royal Botanic gardens University Herbal garden, Los Banos Royal Botanic garden, Kaudy Botanic gardens

Quality control requirement of new preparation of traditional medicines 1. Prescription and its basis 2. Literature and research data of physico-chemical characteristic concerned with quality 3. Preparation technology and its research references 4. The draft of the quality standard and explanation of medicinal material, and medicament. 5. Literature and test data of initial stability for clinical research 6. The reports of quality detection and hygiene standard detection of the preparation for clinical research 7. Property and specification of the packing material of the medicament, design draft of the label and applied instructions General requirement of quality control standard of medicament 1. Quantitative determination of the effective compound or indicative component of 1-2 species of main medicinal materials in the prescription 2. Qualitative identification of several to half of the medicinal materials in the prescription 3. Determination of content of Pb, Cd, Hg, As and limit test of heavy metals in medicines 4. Hygienic standard: bacteria < 1000/1gm, mould < 100/1gm, colibacillosis-nil 5. Determination of pesticide residues (organic Cl and P) in the medicament The general scheme for quality assessment of botanicals The general scheme for quality assessment of botanicals as suggested by Kraisintu (1997) is as follows. I. 1. 2. 3.

Assessment of crude plant materials General description of the plant Parts used Production of crude drugs-cultivation, harvesting, post-harvest handling, packing, storage. 4. Quality specification: Chemical or chromatographic identification, foreign organic mater limit, ash content, acid insoluble ash content, water soluble extractive, alcohol soluble extract, moisture content, active constituent content, microbial limit, pesticide residue limit, heavy metal limit, likely contaminants, adulterants. II. Assessment of finished products 1. Tablets: Weight variation, disintegration time, identification of preservatives and active ingredients, determination of extractives in various solvents, microbial limit, heavy metals. 2. Solutions: pH, identification of preservatives and active ingredients, alcohol content, microbial limit, Sodium Saccharic content. 30

3. Infusions: Weight variations, identification of preservatives and active ingredients, determination of extractives in various solvents, microbial limit, heavy metals, Borax. III. Chemical Standardisation methods: TLC/HPTLC, HPLC,GLC,FTIR IV. Chemical Markers: Specification for raw materials, quality assurance in process control, standardisation of product, obtaining stability profiles, single marker vs. fingerprint. V. Parameters of assay validation: Linearity, limits of quantification and detection, precision, robustness, recovery. Complex and variable mixtures, choice of compounds to quantify, difficult sample preparation, lack of pure reference standards, lack of methods with adequate tolerances by analytical chemistry standards are some of the challenges in Chemical Standardisation of plant drugs. International scheme for quality assurance of pharmaceutics International scheme for quality assurance of pharmaceutics involves the following standard practices. GAP: Good Agricultural Practice GLP: Good Laboratory Practice GMP: Good Manufacturing Practice GCP: Good Clinical Practice GALP: Good Analytical/Automated Laboratory Practice Quality has to be built into the whole process beginning from the selection of propagation material to the final product reaching the consumer. It is therefore a management system where all steps involved in the industrial utilisation process have to be properly and strictly controlled to produce the desired quality products. The requirements for ISO 9000 certification have to be introduced and personnel trained so that enterprises could introduce the proper systems needed for certification. The control of the quality of the raw materials, finished products and of processes is an absolute necessity, if one is to produce goods for world markets and human use. Monographs have to be prepared for each product to include all specifications developed. Modern analytical techniques have to be extensively used to develop identity and quality parameters. The machinery and processes used in industries have to be validated to comply with international standards. It is imperative that the processed products comply with national and/or international specification. There are International Standard Organisation Specification (ISO) for many of the products. In addition, countries and buyers can have their own requirements. Hence the products could be tailor made to conform to the buyers’ requirements. Sometimes the requirements of the buyers are more stringent and specific, demanding the application of good manufacturing procedures. Associated with quality management is the compliance with current good manufacturing practices. WHO requirements of good manufacturing practices have to be introduced in every project as most developing countries fall very short of GMP. Without GMP products can not be expected to be of required standards and quality. The concept of safety is almost non-existent in many developing countries. Safety requirements with respect to buildings, machinery and staff have to be introduced and if possible, safety manuals have to be prepared in order to focus the attention of the management and staff on these issues. Stringent requirements are being introduced presently to safeguard the environment, to reduce pollution caused by use of synthetic materials and to conserve the biodiversity. Hence eco-audit procedures will be required for safeguarding environmental damage. Organic production will reduce the risks of contamination of products and the environment with synthetic chemicals. In fact ISO 14000 requirements may have to be met in the future if the buyers insist on eco-labelling. 31

Modern approach to standardisation comprises mainly examination of organoleptic characters and qualitative estimation of some salts, minerals, ash contents, pH value, etc. There is one basic difference of outlook between the Ayurvedic and modern Allopathic system regarding the therapeutic use of drugs. While in Ayurveda, whole drug is used, in Allopathy the isolated active ingredient present in the drug is used. Ayurvedic drugs act moderately and gradually, but Allopathic drugs react severely and quickly. Charak has prescribed the following four standards for effective drugs. 1. Which grow in proper season 2. Have attained maturity in taste, potency and smell 3. Whose smell, appearance, taste and touch remains unvitiated by the effect of weather, fire, air and insects. 4. Fresh Sushruta has propounded a general principle regarding acceptability of plants for use as medicine. A drug may be accepted for use whether it is new or old provided its odour has not vitiated and its taste etc., not deteriorated.

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TROPICAL MEDICINAL PLANTS Tropical countries are a treasure house of a wide variety of medicinal plants. Some species are found wild, while a number of species have been domesticated by the farmers. Many species have been grown in homesteads and become part of traditional home remedies. A limited number of species are commercially cultivated though a few more have potential for large-scale production. The important tropical and subtropical medicinal plants are discussed here highlighting the importance, medicinal and other uses, distribution, botany, agrotechnology, chemical constituents and activity. For practical convenience of the discussion in this book, they are classified under the following four broad groups. a) Medicinal herbs b) Medicinal shrubs c) Medicinal climbers d) Medicinal trees

AMBRETTE

Abelmoschus moschatus

Malvaceae

San: Latakasturika Hin, Guj, Ben: Mushkdana Mal: Kasthurivenda Mar: Kasthuribhendi Tel: Kasturi benda Tam: Varttilaikasturi Kan: Kasturi bende Ass: Gorukhiakorai

Importance Ambrette, also popularly known as musk or Muskmallow, is an erect annual herb which yields musk-like scented seeds and woos everybody through its sensuous musky fragrance. Every part of this medicinal plant is used in one or the other way . Seeds are effective aphrodisiac and antispasmodic, and used in tonics. They check vomiting and cure diseases due to kapha and vata and are useful in treating intestinal disorders, urinary discharge, nervous disorders, hysteria, skin diseases, snake bites, pruritus, leucoderma and general debility. Flower infusion is contraceptive. The leaves and roots are used for gonorrhoea and to treat boils and swellings. Ambrette oil of commerce is extracted from the seeds and is used in perfumery, flavouring, cosmetic and agarbathi industries. The essential oil is employed in nonalcoholic beverages, ice-creams, candies and baked foods. The aromatic concrete and absolute, extracted from seeds are used as base material for preparing high grade perfumes, scents and cosmetics. It is also known for exalting, amplifying and diffusing effects it imparts to perfumes. It blends well with rose, neroli, and sandal wood oil and aliphatic aldehydes. The flowers are in great demand for making ‘zarda’ a flavoured tobacco in India. The seeds are mixed with tea and coffee for flavour. The seed is rich in essential amino acids and is used as cattle or poultry feed. The stem bark yields a good quality fibre. Seeds are used to protect woollen garments against moth and it imparts a musky odour to sachets, hair powder, panmasala and incense. Its tender shoots are used in soups, green pods as vegetable and seed husk in flower arrangements. From perfumes to panmasalas and tonics, it is the musky musk all the way. In addition to internal consumption, its seeds are exported to Canada, France and UK because of its diversified uses (Srinivasan et al, 1997).

Distribution The musk plant is a native of India and it grows in the tropical subtropical and hilly regions of the country; particularly in the states of Maharashta, Gujarat, Madhyapresh, 33

Tamil Nadu and Kerala. More than 50 collections of the plant are maintained by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi and its regional station in Akola, Maharashtra.

Botany Abelmoschus moschatus Medicus syn. Hibiscus abelmoshus Linn. belongs to Family Malvaceae. Muskmallow is an erect annual or biennial hirsute or hispid herb of 60-180 cm height. The leaves are simple polymorphous, usually palmately 3-7 lobed; lobes narrow, acute or oblong-ovate, crenate, serrate or irregularly toothed, hairy on both surfaces. Flowers are large and bright yellow with purple centre. Fruits are fulvous, hairy and capsular. Seeds are many, subreniform, black or greyish - brown and musk scented (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology Ambrette is a hardy plant which can be grown in varied climate under tropical and subtropical conditions. It can be grown both as a rainfed crop and as an irrigated crop. It grows on well drained loamy and sandy loam soils. Loamy soils with neutral pH and plenty of organic matter are ideal for its cultivation. Musk of propagated through seeds. The optimum time of sowing is June-July with pre-monsoon showers. The land is prepared well by ploughing, harrowing and levelling. Well decomposed FYM or compost is incorporated into the soil at 10 - 15 t/ha. Ridges and furrows are formed giving a spacing of 60 - 100 cm. Seed rate is 2-3 kg/ha. Seeds are soaked in water before sowing for 24 hours. Two to three seeds are sown per hole at 60 cm spacing on one side of the ridge at a depth of 1 cm and covered with a pinch of sand or loose soil. It takes 5-7 days for proper germination. After germination, extra seedlings are thinned out leaving one healthy growing plant per hole within 20 days. Fertilisers are applied at 120:40:40 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha generally. However, a dose 160:80:80 kg/ha is recommended for best yields of seed and oil. Phosphorus is applied fully as basal. N and K are applied in 3 equal doses at planting, 2 and 4 months after planting. Fertilizers are applied 10 cm away from the plants. For irrigated crop, field is irrigated soon after sowing. Irrigation is given twice a week during the initial period and once a week thereafter. The field is kept weed free by regular weeding during the growing period (Farooqi and Khan, 1991). Musk plants suffer from pests like spider mites, fruit bores and leaf eating caterpillars. Diseases like powdery mildew and wilt are also observed on the plant. Spider mites and powdery mildew are controlled by spraying 30g wettable sulphur in 10 litres of water. Pod borers can be controlled by spraying 20ml oxydemeton methyl in 10 litres of water. The crop starts flowering about 75 days after sowing. The flowers set into fruits in 3-4 days and the pods take nearly a month to mature. Flowering and fruit setting extends from October to April. Harvesting is arduous. Fruits have to be plucked as soon as they attain black colour; otherwise, they split and seeds scatter. Therefore, weekly collection of pods is necessary and in all 20-25 pluckings may be required as it is a 170-180 days duration crop. The fruits are further dried and threshed to separate seeds. The seed yield is 1-1.5 /ha

Postharvest technology

34

. The oil is extracted from seed by steam distillation followed by solvent extraction. The concrete of solvent extraction is further extracted with alcohol to get the absolute, that is, the alcohol soluble volatile concentrate.

Properties and activity The fatty oil of seeds contain phospholipids as 2 - cephalin, phosphatidylserine and its plasmalogen and phosphatidyl choline plasmalogen. Absolute contains farnesol and ambrettolic acid lactone. - sitosterol and its - d - glucosides are isolated from leaves. Petals contain -sitosterol, flavonoid myricetin and its glucoside. Anthocyanins like cyanidin - 3 - sambubioside and cyanidin - 3 - glucoside are present in the flowers. (Chopra and Nayar, 1980) Seeds are aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, diuretic, demulcent, antiseptic, stomachic, tonic, carminative, antihysteric, antidiarrhoeal, ophthalmic, cardiac and antivenum.

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DATURA

Datura metel

San: Dhustura Hin.: Kaladhatura Ben: Dhatura Tam: Vellummattai Tel: Tellavummetta

Solanaceae Mal: Ummam Kan; Dattura

Importance Downy datura or thorn apple is an erect branched under shrub whose intoxicating and narcotic properties have been made use of by man from ancient time. The plant and fruit are spasmolytic, anticancerous and anthelmintic. Leaves and seeds are inhaled in whooping cough, asthma and other respiratory diseases. Root, leaf and seed are febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal, anticatarrhal and are used in insanity, cerebral complications and skin diseases. Leaf is antitumour, antirheumatic and vermicide. Flower is antiasthamatic, anaesthetic and is employed in swellings and eruptions on face. Fruit juice is used in earache and seed decoction in ophthalmia. For the rheumatic swellings of joints, lumbago, sciatica and neuralgia, warm leaf smeared with an oil is used as a bandage or sometimes the leaf is made into a poultice and applied. The root boiled with milk is used in insanity. It is also an ingredient in the ayurvedic preparation Kanakasva used in bronchial troubles, and the Unani formulations “Roghan dhatura” used as a massage oil for the paralysed part. The alkaloids of pharmaceutical interest present in the plant are hyoscyamine, hyoscine and meteloidine. Datura is the chief commercial source of hyoscine available from natural source. Hyoscine, in the form of hyoscine hydrobromide, is used as a pre-anaesthetic in surgery, child birth, ophthalmology and prevention of motion sickness. It is also employed in the relief of withdrawal symptoms in morphine and alcoholic addiction, paralysis agitans, post-encephaletic parkinsonianism and to allay sexual excitement. Hyoscyamine and its salt hyoscyamine sulphate and hyoscyamine hydrobromide are used in delerium, tremour, menia and parkinsonianism (Kaul and Singh, (1995).

Distribution Datura is distributed throughout the world, particularly the warmer regions. Datura stramonium is indigenous to India. Out of 15 species reported from different parts of the world, only 10 are known to occur in India. They are found commonly in wastelands, gardens and roadsides. They are distributed in rich localities under semi-arid and arid regions of Punjab, Haryana, Rajastan, and Gujarat; the Central Plateau of Andhra Pradesh and Maharastra and the southern peninsular region of Tamil Nadu. Datura innoxia is indigenous to Mexico and is distributed in Latin American countries. A wealth of genetic stock on genotypes and varieties are maintained in several research institutes in Germany, Bulgaria, USSR and Poland.

Botany The genus Datura, belonging to the family solanaceae, consists of annual and perennial herbs, shrubs and trees. Three species,viz, Datura metel Linn., D. stramonium Linn. and D. innoxia Mill. are medicinally important. D. innoxia mill. and D. metel Linn. (var. alba, and var, fastuosa) are the choice drug plants, rich in hyoscine. D. metel Linn. is the most common in India. The names, D. metel Linn., D. fastuosa Linn., D. alba Nees., D. fastuosa Linn. var. alba (Nees) C.B. Clarke and D. metel Linn. var. fastuosa (Linn.) Safford are synonymously used by many workers. Two varieties are often noted in D. metel Linn., namely the white flowered var. alba and purple flowered var. fastuosa. D. metel Linn. is an erect succulent branched undershrub divaricate often purplish branches and ovate pubescent leaves which are oblique at the base of lamina. Flowers are large, solitary, short pedicelled, purplish outside and white inside. Fruits are sub-globose capsules covered all over with numerous, fleshy prickles, irregularly breaking when mature. Seeds are numerous, smooth, yellowish brown. (warrier et al, 1994).

Agrotechnology Datura grows well in a wide range of climate from tropical to temperate conditions. The plant thrives best in areas of low rainfall where winter and monsoon rains are followed 36

by long dry periods. Areas with annual rainfall below 1000mm with mean temperature of 10-15oC in winter and 27 - 28oC in May-June are ideal. The crop cannot stand frost, high rainfall or high temperature in the plains in May-June. It grows on majority of soils, however, alkaline or neutral clay loam soil or those tending to saline-alkaline reaction rich in organic matter are ideal for vigorous growth. The clayey, acidic, water-logged or moisture deficient soils do not suit this crop. The plant is propagated by seeds but it is characterised by poor and often erratic seed germination which can be improved either by leaching out the inhibitor from the seeds or by alternate freezing and thawing of seeds. The optimum season for raising the crop is Rabi in tropical and subtropical areas while Kharif in temperate areas. The seeds can be broadcast sown or seedlings can be raised in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 7-8 kg/ha for broadcasting and 2-3 kg/ha. for transplanting. The field is ploughed and disced adequately to produce fine seed bed. In the case of direct seeding, seeds are drilled in rows taken 45-60 cm apart. The plants are thinned to keep a spacing of 30-45 cm at the time of first weeding. In the case of transplanting 4-6 weeks old seedlings are planted at 45-60 x 30-45 cm spacing. The field should be irrigated immediately after sowing or planting if soil moisture is inadequate. Thereafter 3-4 irrigations may be given if sufficient rainfall is not received. Application of organic manure at 10-15 t/ha and fertilisers at 60:40:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha is recommended for the crop for better growth and yield N may be applied in 3-4 equal split doses at planting and after each weeding which is required 2-3 times during the growing season. Application of micronutrients is reported to improve the alkaloid contents. No major insect pest is known to attack this crop. However, leaf spot, wilt and mosaic diseases cause damage to this crop. Leaf spot is caused by Alternaria tennuissima (Nees) Wiltshire and characterised by brown round to oval spots, becoming necrotic at later stage which leads to withering and dropping of leaves. Wilt is caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sace; it starts with dropping of leaves and finally wilting of the entire plant. Root and foot wilt, caused by Corticium solani, appears as damping off of seedlings and mature plants. Datura distortion mosaic is characterised by yellowing of the veins followed by inward rolling and distortion of leaves with a reduction in plant size. For reducing the impact of these diseases, field sanitation, use of resistant varieties, crop rotation for 3-4 years and fungicide application should be resorted to. For the purpose of leaf and top, harvesting is done as soon as flowering starts. Entire top containing leaves and twigs is cut, dried in shade and stored in gunny bags. For seed and fruit, fully grown fruits, still green are picked 2-3 times before final harvest when the entire plant is cut from the base and dried in the open. The dried fruits are then thrashed with a stick to separate the seeds. The seed yield is 1-1.5 t/ha. (Husain, 1993; Kaul and Singh, 1995)

Properties and activity The alkaloids hyoscyamine and hyoscine (scopolamine) and meteloidine are found in all parts of the plant. The total alkaloid content is 0.26 - 0.42 % Fruits contain daturaolone and daturadiol while roots contain additionally ditigloyloxy tropane derivatives, tigloidine, apohyoscine, norhyoscine, norhyocyamine, cusiohygrine and tropine. Other alkaloids isolated from the plant are apohyoscyamine, DL-scopolamine, normeteloidine, tigloylputrescine, scopine, nortigloidine, tropine, psuedo valeroidine, fastudine, fastunine, fastusinine, 7-hydroxy-3, 6-ditigloyloxytropane (2) datura nolone and fastusic acid. The physiological effects of hyoscyamine are qualitatively the same as those of its recemic derivative atropine. This is relatively more active in its paralysing affect on nerve endings and less active in its stimulant action on the central nervous system. The sedative and hypnotic action of hyoscyamine is weaker than that of hyoscine. Atropine has a stimulant action on the central nervous system and depresses the nerve endings to the secretary glands and plain muscles. The plant or the different alkaloids have narcotic, anthelmintic, spasmolytic anaesthetic, sedative, ophthalmic, anticancerous, antitumour, antirheumatic, antiasthmatic, antidiarrhoeal and anticatarrhal activities. (Thakur et al, 1989). 37

ASPARAGUS

Asparagus racemosus

Liliaceae

San, Mar, Hin, Mal: Satavari; Ben: Shatamuli, Guj: Ekalkanto, Tel: Pilligadalu, Philithaga Tam: Ammaikodi, Kilwari, Kan: Aheruballi, Ori: Manajolo

Importance Asparagus is a climbing undershrub with widespread applications as diuretic, cooling agent and an excellent safe herbal medicine for ante-natal care. It is useful in nervous disorders, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, tumours, inflammations, vitiated conditions of vata and pitta, burning sensation, hyperdipsia, ophthalmopathy, nephropathy, hepatopathy, strangury, scalding of urine, throat infections, tuberculosis, cough, bronchitis, gleet, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, leprosy, epilepsy, fatigue, hyperacidity, colic haemorrhoids, hypertension, abortion, agalactia, cardiac and general debility (Warrier et al, 1993). Shatavari is described in Rigveda and Atharvaveda. In Ayurvedic classics it is prescribed as a cooling agent and uterine tonic. It is the main ingredient in ayurvedic medicines like shatavari gulam and shatavari ghrtam. Besides quenching thirst, its root juice helps in cooling down the body from summer heat, curing hyper-acidity and peptic ulcer. It contains good amount of mucilage which soothes the inner cavity of stomach. It relieves burning sensation while passing urine and is used in urinary tract infections. It contains an anticancer agent asparagin which is useful against leukaemia. It also contains active antioxytocic saponins which have got antispasmodic effect and specific action on uterine musculature. It is very good relaxant to uterine muscles, especially during pregnancy and is used to prevent abortion and pre-term labour on the place of progesterone preparations. Its powder boiled with milk is generally used to prevent abortion. It increases milk production in cows and buffaloes. Its preparations in milk helps in increasing breast milk in lactating women. Its proper use helps in avoiding excessive blood loss during periods. It clears out infections and abnormalities of uterine cavity and hence it is used to rectify infertility in women. The leaves are used to prepare toilet soaps. The plant has also ornamental value both for indoor and out door decorations (Syamala, 1997).

Distribution The plant is found wild in tropical and subtropical India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is distributed from mean sea level upto 1500m in the Himalayas from Kashmir eastwards. The crop is cultivated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Predesh and northern states in India. However, most of the requirement of the industry is met through wild collections from forests. It is also grown in gardens.

Botany Satavari, Asparagus racemosus Willd. belongs to the lily family, Liliaceae. Asparagus adscendens Roxb., A. filicinus Lam., A. gonoclados Baker, A. officinalis Linn. and A. sarmentosus Willd. are the other important medicinal plant species of the genus. A. racemosus Willd. is an armed climbing undershrub with woody terete stems and recurved or rarely straight spines. The tuberous succulent roots are 30cm to 100cm or more in length, fascicled at the stem base, smooth tapering at both ends. Young stems are very delicate, brittle and smooth. Leaves are reduced to minute chaffy scales and spines; cladodes triquetrous, curved in tufts of 2-6. Flowers are white fragrant in simple or branched recemes

38

on the naked nodes of the main shoots or in the axils of the thorns. Fruits are globular or obscurely 3-lobed, pulpy berries, purplish black when ripe; seeds with hard and brittle testa.

Agrotechnology The plant comes up well under a wide range of tropical and subtropical climate. Fertile moist sandy loam soils are ideal for its cultivation though it grows in a wide range of soils. Better root development is observed in soils in increased proportion of sand. However, a decline in the yield of the crop is noticed in soils containing previous year’s residue of the roots. Asparagus plant is best grown from its tuberous roots even though it can be successfully propagated through seeds. Since root tubers are of commercial value seed propagation provides economic advantage to the farmers. Seeds usually start germinating after 40 days and average germination is 70% (Tewari and Misra, 1996). For the cultivation of the crop, the land is ploughed well with pre-monsoon showers and seed nurseries are raised on seed beds of approximately 1m width, 15cm height and suitable length. Seed nursery should be irrigated regularly and kept weed free. With the onset of monsoon in June-July the main field is ploughed thoroughly and pits of size 30cm cube are dug at a spacing of 60-100cm. Tiwari and Misra (1996) have reported that irrespective of more number of roots and higher fresh weight per plant under wider spacings, the per hectare yields were highest in the closer spacing of 30cm x 30cm. The pit is filled with a mixture of top soil and well decomposed FYM or compost applied at 10 - 15 t/ha and the seedlings are transplanted. Application of N, P2O5 and K2O at 60:30:30 kg/ha increases the root yield. Regular irrigation and weeding are required to realize higher yields. Standards are to be provided for training the plant (Sharma et al, 1992). Few pests and diseases are observed on this crop. Harvesting the crop after two years provided higher root yield than annual harvests in pots as well as in field experiments. Irrigating the field prior to harvest enables easy harvesting of the root tubers. The average yield is 10 - 15 t/ha of fresh root tubers though yields over 60t/ha have been reported.

Properties and Activity Asparagus roots contain protein 22%, fat 6.2%, Carbohydrate 3.2%, Vitamin B 0.36%, Vitamin C 0.04% and traces of Vitamin A. It contains several alkaloids. Alcoholic extract yields asparagin- an anticancer agent. It also contains a number of antioxytocic saponins, viz. Shatavarisn - I to IV (Syamala, 1997). Leaves contain rutin, diosgenin and a flavonoid glycoside identified as quercetin - 3 - glucuronide. Flowers contain quercetin hyperoside and rutin. Fruits contain glycosides of quercetin, rutin and hyperoside while fully ripe fruits contain cyanidin - 3 - galactoside and cyanidin - 3 - glucorhamnoside. Root is demulcent, diuretic, aphrodisiac, tonic, alterative, antiseptic, antidiarrhoeal, glalctogogue and antispasmodic. Aerial part is spasmolytic, antiarrhythmic and anticancer. Bark is antibacterial and antifungal.

39

GREATER AMMI

Ammi majus

Apiaceae

Importance Greater Ammi, also known as Bishop’s weed or Honey plant is an annual or biennial herb which is extensively used in the treatment of leucoderma (vitiligo) and psoriasis. The compounds responsible for this are reported to be furocoumarins like ammoidin (xanthotoxin), ammidin (imperatorin) and majudin (bergapten) present in the seed. Xanthotoxin is marketed under the trade name “Ox soralen” which is administered orally in doses of 50 mg t.d. or applied externally as 1% liniment followed by exposure of affected areas to sunlight or UV light for 2 hours. It is also used in “Suntan lotion”. Meladinine is a by-product of Ammi majus processing, containing both xanthotoxin and imperatorin sold in various formulations increases pigmentation of normal skin and induces repigmentation in vitiligo. Imperatorin has antitumour activity. Fruit or seed causes photosensitization in fouls and sheep.

Distribution The plant is indigenous to Egypt and it grows in the Nile Valley, especially in Behira and Fayoom. It is also found in the basin of the Mediterranean Sea, in Syria, Palestine, Abyssinia, West Africa, in some regions of Iran and the mountains of Kohaz (Ramadan, 1982). It grows wild in the wild state in Abbottabad, Mainwali, Mahran and is cultivated in Pakistan. The crop was introduced to India in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, in 1955 through the courtesy of UNESCO. Since then, the crop has been grown for its medicinal fruit in several places in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Kashmir and Tamil Nadu.

Botany Ammi majus Linn. belongs to the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae). A. visnaga is another related species of medicinal importance. A. majus is an annual or beinnial herb growing to a height of 80 to 120 cm. It has a long tap root, solid erect stem, decompound leaves, light green alternate, variously pinnately divided, having lanceolate to oval segments. Inflorescence is axillary and terminal compound umbels with white flowers. The fruits are ribbed, ellipsoid, green to greenish brown when immature, turning reddish brown at maturity and having a characteristic terebinthinate odour becoming strong on crushing with extremely pungent and slightly bitter taste.

Agrotechnology Ammi is relatively cold loving and it comes up well under subtropical and temperate conditions. It does not prefer heavy rainfall. Though the plant is biennial it behaves as an annual under cultivation in India. A mild cool climate in the early stages of crop growth and a warm dry weather at maturity is ideal. It is cultivated as a winter annual crop in rabi season. A wide variety of soils from sandy loam to clay loam are suitable. However, a well drained loamy soil is the best. Waterlogged soils are not good. Being a hardy crop, it thrives on poor and degraded soils. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds germinate within 10-12 days of sowing. The best time of sowing is October and the crop duration is 160-170 days in north India. Crop sown later gives lower yield. The crop can be raised either by direct sowing of seed or by raising a nursery and then transplanting the crop. Seed rate is 2 kg/ha. The land is brought 40

to a fine tilth by repeated ploughing and harrowing. Ridges and furrows are then formed at 45-60 cm spacing. Well decomposed FYM at 10-15 t/ha and basal fertilisers are incorporated in the furrows. Seeds being very small are mixed with fine sand or soil, sown in furrows and covered lightly with a thin layer of soil. A fertilizer dose of 80:30:30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha is generally recommended for the crop while 150:40:40 kg/ha is suggested in poor soils for better yields. The furocoumarin content of Ammi majus is increased by N fertiliser and the N use efficiency increases with split application of N at sowing, branching and at flowering. For obtaining high yields it is essential to give one or two hoeings during November to February which keeps down the weeds. If winter rains fail, one irrigation is essential during November to January. As the harvesting season is spread over a long period of time, two irrigations during March and April meets the requirements of the crop (Chadha and Gupta, 1995). White ants and cut worms are reported to attack the crop which can be controlled by spraying the crop with 40g carbaryl in 10 l of water. Damping off and powdery mildew are the common diseases of the crop. Seed treatment with organomercuric compounds is recommended for damping off. To control powdery mildew the crop is to be sprayed with 30g wettable sulphur in 10 l of water whenever noticed. The crop flowers in February. Flowering and maturity of seed is spread over a long period of two months. The primary umbels and the early maturing secondary umbels are the major contributors to yield. A little delay in harvesting results in the shattering of the seed which is the main constraint in the commercial cultivation of the crop and the main reason for low yields in India. Sobti et al (1978) have reported increased yield by 50 - 60% by the application of planofix at 5 ppm at flower initiation and fruit formation stages. The optimum time of harvest is the mature green stage of the fruit in view of the reduced losses due to shattering and maximum contents of furocoumarins. The primary umbels mature first within 35-45 days. These are harvested at an interval of 2-4 days. Later, the early appearing secondary umbels are harvested. Afterwards, the entire crop is harvested, stored for a couple of days and then threshed to separate the seeds. The seed yield is 900-1200 kg/ha.

Postharvest technology The processing of seed involves solvent extraction of powdered seeds, followed by chilling and liquid extraction and chromatographic separation after treatment with alcoholic HCl. Bergapten, xanthotoxin and xanthotoxol can be separated. Xanthotoxol can be methylated and the total xanthotoxin can be purified by charcoal treatment in acetone or alcohol.

Properties and activity Ammi majus fruit contains amorphous glucoside 1%, tannin 0.45%, oleoresin 4.76%, acrid oil 3.2%, fixed oil 12.92%, proteins 13.83% and cellulose 22.4%. This is one of the richest sources of linear furocoumarins. Ivie (1978) evaluated the furocoumarin chemistry of taxa Ammi majus and reported the presence of xanthotoxin, bergapten, imperatorin, oxypencedanin, heraclenin, sexalin, pabulenol and many other compounds. Furocoumarins have bactericidal, fungicidal, insecticidal, larvicidal, moluscicidal, nematicidal, ovicidal, viricidal and herbicidal activities (Duke, 1988).

41

PERIWINKLE

Catharanthus roseus

Apocynaceae

San: Nityakalyani; Hin: Sadabahar, Baramassi; Mal: Ushamalari, Nityakalyani Tel: Billaganeru; Tam: Sudukattu mallikai; Pun: Rattanjot; Kan: Kasikanigale, Nitya Mallige

Importance Periwinkle or Vinca is an erect handsome herbaceous perennial plant which is a chief source of patented cancer and hypotensive drugs. It is one of the very few medicinal plants which has a long history of uses as diuretic, antidysenteric, haemorrhagic and antiseptic. It is known for use in the treatment of diabetes in Jamaica and India. The alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine present in the leaves are recognized as anticancerous drugs. Vinblastine in the form of vinblastin sulphate is available in market under the trade name "VELBE" and Vincristine sulphate as "ONCOVIN" (Eli Lilly). Vinblastine is used in combination with other anticancer agents for the treatment of lymphocytic lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease, testicular carcinoma and choriocarcinoma. Vincristine is used in acute leukemia, lymphosarcoma and Wilm’s tumour. Its roots are a major source of the alkaloids, raubasine (ajmalicine), reserpine and serpentine used in the preparation of antifibrillic and hypertension-relieving drugs. It is useful in the treatment of choriocarcinoma and Hodgkin's disease-a cancer affecting lymph glands, spleen and liver. Its leaves are used for curing diabetes, menorrhagia and wasp stings. Root is tonic, stomachic, hypotensive, sedative and tranquilliser (Narayana and Dimri,1990 ).

Distribution The plant is a native of Madagascar and hence the name Madagascar Periwinkle. It is distributed in West Indies, Mozambique, South Vietnam, Sri Lanka , Philippines and Australia . It is well adapted to diverse agroclimatic situations prevalent in India and is commercially cultivated in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Assam. USA, Hungary, West Germany, Italy, Netherlands and UK are the major consumers.

Botany Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G.Don. syn. Vinca rosea Linn. belongs to the family Apocynaceae. It is an erect highly branched lactiferous perennial herb growing up to a height of one metre. Leaves are oblong or ovate, opposite, short-petioled, smooth with entire margin. Flowers are borne on axils in pairs . There are three flower colour types , pink, pink-eyed and white. Calyx with 5 sepal, green, linear, subulate. Corolla tube is cylindrical with 5 petals, rose-purple or white with rose-purple spot in the centre; throat of corolla tube hairy, forming a corona-like structure. The anthers are epipetalous borne on short filaments inside the bulging distal end of corolla tube converging conically above the stigma. Two characteristic secretary systems, namely a column like nectarium on both sides of pistil and a secretory cringulam circling the papillate stigma with a presumed role in pollination - fecundation process are present . Ovary bicarpellary, basally distinct with fused common style and stigma. The dehiscent fruit consists of a pair of follicles each measuring about 25 mm in length and 2.3 mm in diameter, containing up to thirty linearly arranged seeds with a thin black tegumen. On maturity, the follicles split along the length dehiscing the seeds.

Agrotechnology Periwinkle grows well under tropical and subtropical climate. A well distributed rainfall of 1000 mm or more is ideal. In north India the low winter temperatures adversely affect the crop growth. It can grow on any type of soil ,except those which are highly saline,

42

alkaline or waterlogged. Light soils, rich in humus are preferable for large scale cultivation since harvesting of the roots become easy . Catharanthus is propagated by seeds . Fresh seeds should be used since they are short-viable. Seeds can be either sown directly in the field or in a nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 2.5 kg/ha for direct sowing and the seeds are drilled in rows 45 cm apart or broadcasted. For transplanted crop the seed rate is 500gm/ha. Seeds are sown in nursery and transplanted at 45x 30cm spacing after 60 days when the seedlings attain a height of 15-20cm Nursery is prepared two months in advance so that transplanting coincides with the on set of monsoons. Application of FYM at the rate of 15 t/ha is recommended. An alternate approach is to grow leguminous green manure crops and incorporate the same into the soil at flowering stage. Fertilisers are recommended at 80:40:40 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha for irrigated crop and 60:30:30 kg/ha for rainfed crop. N is applied in three equal splits at planting and at 45 and 90 days after planting. 4 or 5 irrigations will be needed to optimise yield when rainfall is restricted. Fortnightly irrigations support good crop growth when the crop is grown exclusively as an irrigated crop. Weeding is carried out before each topdressing. Alternatively, use of fluchloraline at 0.75 kg a.i. /ha pre-plant or alachlor at 1.0 kg a.i. per ha as pre-emergence to weeds provides effective control of a wide range of weeds in periwinkle crop. Detopping of plants by 2cm at 50% flowering stage improves root yield and alkaloid contents. No major pests, other than Oleander hawk moth, have been reported in this crop . Fungal diseases like twig blight (top rot or dieback ) caused by Phytophthora nicotianae., Pythium debaryanum, P. butleri and P. aphanidermatum; leaf spot due to Alternaria tenuissima, A. alternata, Rhizoctonia solani and Ophiobolus catharanthicola and foot-rot and wilt by Sclerotium rolfsii and Fusarium solani have been reported. However, the damage to the crop is not very serious. Three virus diseases causing different types of mosaic symptoms and a phyllody or little leaf disease due to mycoplasma-like organisms have also been reported; the spread of which could be checked by uprooting and destroying the affected plants. The crop allows 3-4 clippings of foliage beginning from 6 months. The flowering stage is ideal for collection of roots with high alkaloid content. The crop is cut about 7 cm above the ground and dried for stem, leaf and seed. The field is irrigated, ploughed and roots are collected. The average yields of leaf, stem and root are 3.6, 1.5and 1.5 t/ha, respectively under irrigated conditions and 2.0, 1.0 and 0.75t/ha, respectively under rainfed conditions on air dry basis. The harvested stem and roots loose 80% and 70% of their weight, respectively. The crop comes up well as an undercrop in eucalyptus plantation in north India. In north western India a two year crop sequence of periwinkle-sennamustard or periwinkle-senna- coriander are recommended for higher net returns and productivity (Krishnan,1995).

Properties and activity More than 100 alkaloids and related compounds have so far been isolated and characterised from the plant. The alkaloid contents in different parts show large variations as roots 0.14-1.34%, stem 0.074-0.48%, leaves 0.32-1.16%, flowers 0.005-0.84%, fruits 0.40%, seeds 0.18% and pericarp 1.14% (Krishnan et al, 1983). These alkaloids includes monomeric indole alkaloids, 2-acyl indoles, oxindole, -methylene indolines, dihydroindoles, bisindole and others. Dry leaves contain vinblastine (vincaleucoblastine or VLB) 0.00013-0.00063%, and vincristine (leurocristine or LC) 0.0000003-0.0000153% which have anticancerous activity (Virmani et al, 1978). Other alkaloids reported are vincoside, isovincoside (strictosidine), catharanthine, vindolinine, lochrovicine, vincolidine, ajmalicine (raubasine), reserpine, serpentine, leurosine, lochnerine, tetrahydroalstonine, vindoline, pericalline, perivine, periformyline, perividine, carosine, leurosivine, leurosidine and rovidine. The different alkaloids possessed anticancerous, antidiabetic, diuretic, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, antidysenteric, haemorrhagic, antifibrillic, tonic, stomachic, sedative and tranquillising activities. 43

LONG PEPPER

Piper longum

Piperaceae

San: Pippali; Hin, Ben, Pun: Piplamul; Kan, Mal:Thippali ; Tam: Thippili; Mar: Pimpli; Tel: Pipppaloo; Ass: Piplu.

Introduction Long pepper is a slender aromatic climber whose spike is widely used in ayurvedic and unani systems of medicine particularly for diseases of respiratory tract. Pipalarishta, Pippalyasava, Panchakola, Pippalayadilauha, and Lavana bhaskar churan are common ayurvedic preparations made out of the dry spikes of female types. Ittrifal fauladi, Angaruya-i-kabir and Majun khadar are well known unani preparations of long pepper. Its roots also have several medicinal uses. The root is useful in bronchitis, stomach ache, diseases of spleen and tumours . Fruit is useful in vata and kapha, asthma, bronchitis, abdominal complaints, fever, leucoderma, urinary discharges, tumours, piles, insomnia and tuberculosis. Root and fruit are used in gout and lumbago. The infusion of root is prescribed after parturition to induce the expulsion of placenta. The root and fruit decoction are used in acute and chronic bronchitis and cough. It contains the alkaloid piperine which has diverse pharmacological activities, including nerve depressant and antagonistic effect on electroshock and chemo-shock seizures as well as muscular incoordination.

Distribution The plant is a native of Indo-Malaya region. It was very early introduced to Europe and was highly regarded as a flavour ingredient by the Romans. The Greek name "Peperi", the Latin "Piper" and the English "Pepper" were derived from the Sanskrit name "Pippali". It grows wild in the tropical rain forests of India, Nepal, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri lanka, Rhio, Timor and the Philippines. In India, it is seen in Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka.and Tamil Nadu. It is also cultivated in Bengal, Chirapunchi area of Assam, Akola-Amravati region of Maharashtra, Anamalai hills of Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uduppi and Mangalore regions of Karnataka. Bulk of Indian long pepper comes from its wild growth in Assam, Shillong and West Bengal, supplemented by imports from Sri Lanka and Indonesia (Viswanathan,1995)

Botany Piper longum Linn. is a member of Piperaceae family. The plant is a glabrous perennial under-shrub with erect or sub-scandent nodose stem and slender branches, the latter are often creeping or trailing and rooting below or rarely scandent reaching a few metres height. Leaves are simple, alternate, stipulate, and petiolate or nearly sessile; lower ones broadly ovate, cordate; upper ones oblong, oval, all entire, smooth, thin with reticulate venation; veins raised beneath. It flowers nearly throughout the year. Inflorescence is spike with unisexual small achlamydeous densely packed flowers and form very close clusters of small greyish green or darker grey berries. Female spikes with short thick stalk varying from 1.5 to2.5 cm in length and 0.5 to 0.7 cm in thickness. A number of geographical races are available in different agroclimatic regions of India; the most popular being Assam, West Bengal and Nepal races. Piper officinarum DC; syn. Chavica officinarum Miquel, Piper pepuloides and Piper chaba Hunter are the other related species of importance.

Agrotechnology Long pepper is a tropical plant adapted to high rainfall areas with high humidity. An elevation of 100-1000 m is ideal. It needs partial shade to the tune of 20-30% for best growth. The natural habitat of the plant is on the borders of streams. It is successfully cultivated in well drained forest soils rich in organic matter. Laterite soils with high organic matter content and moisture holding capacity are also suitable for cultivation. Long pepper is propagated by suckers or rooted vine cuttings.15-20 cm long 3-5 nodded rooted vine cuttings establishes very well in polybags. The best time for raising nursery is March-April. Normal irrigation is given on alternate days. The rooted cuttings 44

will be ready for transplanting in 2 months time. With the onset of monsoon in June the field is ploughed well and brought to good tilth. 15-20 cm raised beds of convenient length and breadth are taken. On these beds, pits are dug at 60 x 60 cm spacing and well decomposed organic manure at 100 g/pit is applied and mixed with the soil. Rooted vine cuttings from polybags are transplanted to these pits. Gap filling can be done after one month of planting.The crop needs heavy manuring at the rate of 20 t FYM/ha every year. Application of heavy dose organic matter and mulching increase water retention in the soil and control weeds. Small doses of chemical fertilisers can also be used. The crop needs irrigation once a week. Sprinkler irrigation is ideal. With irrigation the crop continues to produce spikes and off-season produce will be available. However, it is reported that unirrigated crop after the onset of monsoon grows vigorously and shows much hardiness than the irrigated crop. Crop losses can be heavy due to pests and diseases. Mealy bugs and root grubs, attack the plant particularly during summer. Infested plants show yellowing and stunted growth. Application of systemic insecticides like nuvacron or dimecron will control the pests. Adults and nymphs of Helopeltis theivora severely feeds on the foliage which can be controlled by 0.25% neem kernel suspension. Rotting of leaves and vines during monsoon season is caused by Colletotrichum glorosporiodes and necrotic lesions and blights on the leaves during summer is caused by Colletotrichum and Cercospora spp. These diseases can be controlled by spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture repeatedly. A virus like disease characterised by yellowing and crinkling of leaves, stunted growth and production of spikes of smaller size and inferior quality was also recently reported. The vines start flowering six months after planting and flowers are produced almost throughout the year. The spikes mature in 2 months time. The optimum stage of harvest is when the spikes are blackish green. The pungency is highest at this stage. Spikes are hand picked when they become mature and then dried. The yield of dry spike is 400 kg /ha during first year, increases to 1000kg during third year and thereafter it decreases. Therefore, after 3 years the whole plant is harvested. The stem is cut close to the ground and roots are dug up. Average yield is 500 kg dry roots/ha (Viswanathan,1995). Piper longum can also be cultivated as an intercrop in plantations of coconut, subabul and eucalyptus.

Post harvest technology The harvested spikes are dried in sun for 4-5 days until they are perfectly dry. The green to dry spike ratio is 10:1.5 by weight. The dried spikes have to be stored in moisture proof containers. Stem and roots are cleaned, cut into pieces of 2.5-5 cm length, dried in shade and marketed as piplamool. There are three grades of piplamool, based on the thickness. The commercial drug consists 0.5-2.5 cm long ,0.5-2.5 mm thick, cylindrical pieces dirty light brown in colour and peculiar odour with a pungent bitter taste, producing numbness to the tongue.

Properties and activity The spike of long pepper contains 4-5% piperine, piplartin, piperolactam, N-isobutyl deca trans-2-trans-4-dienamide and piporadione alkaloides, besides 0.7 % essential oil. Roots gave the alkaloids piperine, piperlongumine (piplartine) and piperlonguminine; sesamine, methyl 3, 4, 5-trimethoxy cinnamate. Stem gave triacoutane 22, 23 dihydrostigmasterol. Fruit essential oil contains piperidine, caryophyllene and sesquiterpene alcohol (Atal et al, 1975 ). The root is plungent, hot, stomachic, laxative, anthelmintic and carminative. The fruit is sweetish, pungent, hot, stomachic, aphrodisiac, alterative, laxative, antidysenteric, emmenagogue, abortifacient, diuretic and tonic. The essential oil is antimicrobial and anthelmintic. N-isobutyl-deca-trans-2-trans-4-dienamide is antitubercular. Piperine is hypotensive, antipyretic, analeptic, and nerve stimulant (Warrier et al, 1995).

45

SERPENTWOOD San: Sarpagandha Tam: Chivan amelpodi

Rauvolfia serpentina Hin: Chandrabhaga Kan: Sutranbhi

Apocynaceae

Mal: Sarpagandhi, Amalpori Tel: Patalagandhi

Introduction Serpentwood is an erect, evergreen , perennial undershrub whose medicinal use has been known since 3000 years. Its dried root is the economical part which contains a number of alkaloids of which reserpine, rescinnamine, deserpidine, ajamalacine, ajmaline, neoajmalin, serpentine, -yohimbine are pharmacologically important. The root is a sedative and is used to control high blood pressure and certain forms of insanity. In Ayurveda it is also used for the treatment of insomnia, epilepsy, asthma, acute stomach ache and painful delivery. It is used in snake-bite, insect stings, and mental disorders. It is popular as "Madman's medicine" among tribals. 'Serpumsil’ tablet for high blood pressure is prepared from Rauvolfia roots. Reserpine is a potent hypotensive and tranquillizer but its prolonged usage stimulates prolactine release and causes breast cancer. The juice of the leaves is used as a remedy for the removal of opacities of the cornea.

Distribution Rauvolfia serpentina is native to India. Several species of Rauvolfia are observed growing under varying edaphoclimatic conditions in the humid tropics of India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Bangladesh, Indonesia , Cambodia, Philippines and Sri Lanka. In India, it is cultivated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Assam, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh (Dutta and Virmani, 1964). Thailand is the chief exporter of Rauvolfia alkaloids followed by Zaire, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Nepal. In India, it has become an endangered species and hence the Government has prohibited the exploitation of wild growing plants in forest and its export since 1969.

Botany Plumier in 1703 assigned the name Rauvolfia to the genus in honour of a German physcian -Leonhart Rauvolf of Augsburg. The genus Rauvolfia of Apocynaceae family comprises over 170 species distributed in the tropical and subtropical parts of the world including 5 species native to India. The common species of the genus Rauvolfia and their habitat as reported by Trivedi (1995) are given below. R. serpentina Benth. ex Kurz.(Indian serpentwood) - India ,Bangladesh, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Indonesia R. vomitoria Afz. (African serpentwood) - West Africa, Zaire, Rwanda, Tanzania R. canescens Linn. syn. R. tetraphylla (American serpentwood) - America, India R. mombasina - East Africa , Kenya, Mozambique R. beddomei - Western ghats and hilly tracts of Kerala R. densiflora - Maymyo, India R. microcarpa - Thandaung R. verticillata syn. R. chinensis - Hemsl R. peguana - Rangoon-Burma hills R. caffra - Nigeria, Zaire, South Africa R. riularis - Nmai valley R. obscura - Nigeria, Zaire R. serpentina is an erect perennial shrub generally 15-45 cm high, but growing upto 90cm under cultivation. Roots nearly verticle, tapering up to 15 cm thick at the crown and long giving a serpent-like appearance, occasionally branched or tortuous developing small fibrous roots. Roots greenish-yellow externally and pale yellow inside, extremely bitter in taste. Leaves born in whorls of 3-4 elliptic-lanceolate or obovate, pointed. Flowers numerous borne on terminal or axillary cymose inflorscence. Corolla tubular, 5-lobed, 1-3 cm long, whitish-pink in colour. Stamens 5, epipetalous. Carpels 2, connate, style filiform with large bifid stigma. Fruit is a drupe, obliquely ovoid and purplish black in colour at 46

maturity with stone containing 1-2 ovoid wrinkled seeds. The plant is cross-pollinated, mainly due to the protogynous flowers (Sulochana ,1959).

Agrotechnology Among the different species of Rauvolfia, R. serpentina is preferred for cultivation because of higher reserpine content in the root . Though it grows in tropical and subtropical areas which are free from frost, tropical humid climate is most ideal. Its common habitats receive an annual rain fall of 1500-3500 mm and the annual mean temperature is 10-38 C. It grows up to an elevation of 1300-1400m from msl. It can be grown in open as well as under partial shade conditions. It grows on a wide range of soils. Medium to deep well drained fertile soils and clay-loam to silt-loam soils rich in organic matter are suitable for its cultivation. It requires slightly acidic to neutral soils for good growth. The plant can be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings, stem cuttings or root stumps and by seeds. Seed propagation is the best method for raising commercial plantation. Seed germination is very poor and variable from 10-74%. Seeds collected during September to November give good results. It is desirable to use fresh seeds and to sock in 10% sodium chloride solution. Those seeds which sink to the bottom should only be used. Seeds are treated with ceresan or captan before planting in nursery to avoid damping off. Seed rate is 5-6 kg/ha. Nursery beds are prepared in shade, well rotten FYM is applied at 1kg/m2 and seeds are dibbled 6-7cm apart in May-June and irrigated. Two months old seedlings with 4-6 leaves are transplanted at 45-60 x 30 cm spacing in July -August in the main field. Alternatively, rooted cuttings of 2.5-5cm long roots or 12-20cm long woody stems can also be used for transplanting. Hormone (Seradix) treatment increases rooting . In the main field 10-15 t/ha of FYM is applied basally. Fertilisers are applied at 40:30:30kg N: P2O5 :K2O/ha every year. N is applied in 2-3 splits. Monthly irrigation increases the yield. The nursery and the main field should be kept weed free by frequent weeding and hoeing. In certain regions intercroping of soybean, brinjal, cabbage, okra or chilly is followed in Rauvolfia crop. Pests like root grubs (Anomala polita), moth (Deilephila nerii), caterpillar (Glyophodes vertumnalis), black bugs and weevils are observed on the crop, but the crop damage is not serious. The common diseases reported are leaf spot (Cercospora rauvolfiae, Corynespora cassiicola), leaf blotch (Cercospora serpentina), leaf blight (Alternaria tenuis), anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), die back (Colletotrichum dematrium), powdery mildew (Leviellula taurica), wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), root-knot (Meloidogyne sp.), mosaic and bunchy top virus diseases. Field sanitation, pruning and burning of diseased parts and repeated spraying of 0.2% Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 are recommended for controlling various fungal diseases. Rauvolfia is harvested after 2-3 years of growth. The optimum time of harvest is in November -December when the plants shed leaves, become dormant and the roots contain maximum alkaloid content. Harvesting is done by digging up the roots by deeply penetrating implements (Guniyal et al, 1988).

Postharvest technology The roots are cleaned washed cut into 12-15cm pieces and dried to 8-10% moisture. The dried roots are stored in polythene lined gunny bags in cool dry place to protect it from mould. The yield is 1.5-2.5 t/ha of dry roots. The root bark constitutes 40-45% of the total weight of root and contributes 90% of the total alkaloids yield.

Properties and activity Rauvolfia root is bitter, acrid, laxative, anthelmintic, thermogenic, diuretic and sedative. Over 200 alkaloids have been isolated from the plant. Rauvolfia serpentina root contains 1.4-3% alkaloids. The alkaloids are classsified into 3 groups, viz, reserpine, ajmaline and serpentine groups. Reserpine group comprising reserpine, rescinnamine, deserpine etc act as hypotensive, sedative and tranquillising agent. Overdose may cause diarrhoea, bradycardia and drowsiness. Ajmaline, ajmalicine, ajmalinine, iso-ajmaline etc of the ajmaline group stimulate central nervous system, respiration and intestinal movement with slight hypotensive activity. Serpentine group comprising serpentine, sepentinine, alstonine etc is mostly antihypertensive. (Husain,1993; Trivedi, 1995; Iyengar, 1985).

47

BAEL San: Bilva, Sriphal Mar, Ben: Baela

Aegle marmelos Hin, Ben, Ass: Bael Mal: Koovalam Tel: Marendu, Bilvapondu Guj: Bilviphal

Rutaceae Tam: Vilvam Kan: Bilvapatra

Importance Bael or Bengal quince is a deciduous sacred tree, associated with Gods having useful medicinal properties, especially as a cooling agent. This tree is popular in ‘Shiva’ and ‘Vishnu’ temples and it can be grown in every house. Its leaves are trifoliate symbolizing the ‘Thrimurthies’-Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, with spear shaped leaflets resembling “Thrisoolam” the weapon of Lord Shiva. Many legends, stories and myths are associated with this tree. The leaflets are given to devotees as ‘prasadam’ in Shiva temples and as ‘Tulasi’ in Vishnu temples. Every part of the tree is medicinal and useful. The roots are used in many Ayurvedic medicines for curing diabetes and leprosy. It is an ingredient of the ‘dasamoola’. The Bark is used to cure intestinal disorders. Leaves contain an alkaloid rutacin which is hypoglycaemic. ‘Two leaves before breakfast’ is said to keep diabetes under control. Leaves and fruits are useful in controlling diarrhoea and dysentery. Fruit pulp is used as ‘shampoo’ and cooling agent. It is also a rich source of carbohydrate, protein, fat, fibre, minerals and vitamin B and C. Fruit pulp is used to cure mouth ulcers as it is the richest natural source of riboflavin (1191 units/ 100 g). ‘Bael sharbat’ is prepared by mixing the fruit pulp with sugar, water and tamarind juice, which is very useful for stomach and intestinal disorders. The rind of the fruit is used for dyeing and tanning. The aromatic wood is used to make pestles in oil and sugar mills and also to make agricultural implements (Rajarajan, 1997).

Distribution Bael tree is native to India and is found growing wild in Sub-Himalayan tracts from Jhelum eastwards to West Bengal, in central and south India. It is grown all over the country, especially in the premises of temples and houses.

Botany Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Corr.ex Roxb. belongs to the citrus family Rutaceae. The golden coloured bael fruit resembles a golden apple and hence the generic name Aegle. The specific name marmelos is derived from marmelosin contained in the fruit (Nair, 1997). Aegle marmelos is a medium sized armed deciduous tree growing upto 8m in height with straight sharp axillary thorns and yellowish brown shallowly furrowed corky bark. Leaves are alternate, trifoliate and aromatic; leaflets ovate or ovate-lanceolate, crenate, pellucidpunctate, the laterals subsessile and the terminal long petioled. Flowers are greenish-white, sweet scented, borne on axillary panicles. Fruit is globose, woody berry with golden yellow rind when ripe. Seeds are numerous oblong, compressed and embedded in the orange brown sweet gummy pulp.

Agrotechnology Bael comes up well in humid tropical and subtropical climate. It grows on a wide range of soils from sandy loam to clay loam. North Indian varieties are preferred to South Indian types for large scale cultivation. Twelve varieties are cultivated in North India for 48

their fruits. Kacha, Ettawa, Seven Large, Mirsapuri and Deo Reo Large are varieties meant specially for ‘Sharbat’. The plant is propagated mainly by seeds and rarely by root cuttings. Seeds are freshly extracted from ripe fruits after removing the pulp and then dried in sun. Seeds are soaked in water for 6 hours and sown on seed beds which are covered with rotten straw and irrigated regularly. Seeds germinate within 15-20 days. One month old seedlings can be transplanted into polybags which can be planted in the field after 2 months. Budded or grafted plants as well as new saplings arising from injured roots can also be used for planting. Grafted plants start yielding from the 4th year while the trees raised from seeds bear fruits after 7-10 years. Planting is done in the main field with onset of monsoon in June-July at a spacing of 6-8m. Pits of size 50cm3 are dug. Pits are filled with a mixture of top soil and 10kg of well decomposed FYM and formed into a heap. Seedlings are transplanted in the middle of the heap and mulched. Chemical fertilisers are not usually applied. The dose of organic manure is increased every year till 50kg/tree of 5 years or more. Regular irrigation and weeding are required during early stages of growth. No serious pests and diseases are noted in the crop. Bael tree flowers during April. The flowers are aromatic with pleasant and heavenly odour. The fruits are set and slowly develop into mature fruits. Fruits are seen from October-March. A single tree bears 200-400 fruits each weighing 1-2 kg. Roots can be collected from mature trees of age 10 years or more. Tree is cut down about 1m from the ground. The underground roots are carefully dug out. Roots with the attached wood is then marketed (Rajarajan,1997).

Properties and activity Bael is reported to contain a number of coumarins, alkaloids, sterols and essential oils. Roots and fruits contain coumarins such as scoparone, scopoletin, umbelliferone, marmesin and skimmin. Fruits, in addition, contain xanthotoxol, imperatorin and alloimperatorin and alkaloids like aegeline and marmeline identified as N-2-hydroxy-2- 4 (3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide. - sitosterol and its glycoside are also present in the fruits. Roots and stem barks contain a coumarin - aegelinol. Roots also contain psoralen, xanthotoxin, 6,7-dimethoxy coumarin, tembamide, mermin and skimmianine. Leaves contain the alkaloids - O-(3,3-dimethyl allyl)-halfordinol, N-2-ethoxy2 (4-methoxy phenyl) ethyl cinnamide, N-2-methoxy-2-(4-3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide, N- 2-4-(3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide, N-2-hydroxy-24-(3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide, N-4-methoxy steryl cinnamide and N2-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxy phenyl) ethyl cinnamide. Mermesinin, rutin and -sitosterol - -Dglucoside are also present in the leaves (Husain et al, 1992). Root, bark, leaves and fruits are hypoglycaemic, astringent and febrifuge. Root, stem and bark are antidiarrhoeal and antivenin. Leaf is antiinflammatory, expectorant, anticatarrhal, antiasthamatic, antiulcerous and ophthalmic. Flower is emetic. Unripe fruit is stomachic and demulcent. Ripe fruit is antigonorrhoeal, cardiotonic, restorative, laxative, antitubercular, antidysenteric and antiscorbutic. Seed is anthelmintic and antimicrobial (Warrier et al, 1993).

49

INDIAN GOOSEBERRY Phyllanthus emblica Euphorbiaceae San: Amalaka, Adiphala Tel: Amalakam

Hin, Mar: Amla Kan: Amalaka

Ben: Amlaki Guj: Ambala

Mal, Tam: Nelli Kas: Aonla

Importance Indian gooseberry or emblic myrobalan is a medium sized tree the fruit of which is used in many Ayurvedic preparations from time immemorial. It is useful in haemorrhage, leucorrhaea, menorrhagia, diarrhoea and dysentery. In combination with iron, it is useful for anaemia, jaundice and dyspepsia. It goes in combination in the preparation of triphala, arishta, rasayan, churna and chyavanaprash. Sanjivani pills made with other ingredients is used in typhoid, snake-bite and cholera. The green fruits are made into pickles and preserves to stimulate appetite. Seed is used in asthma, bronchitis and biliousness. Tender shoots taken with butter milk cures indigestion and diarrhoea. Leaves are also useful in conjunctivitis, inflammation, dyspepsia and dysentery. The bark is useful in gonorrhoea, jaundice, diarrhoea and myalgia. The root bark is astringent and is useful in ulcerative stomatitis and gastrohelcosis. Liquor fermented from fruit is good for indigestion, anaemia, jaundice, heart complaints, cold to the nose and for promoting urination. The dried fruits have good effect on hair hygiene and used as ingredient in shampoo and hair oil. The fruit is a very rich source of Vitamin C (600mg/100g) and is used in preserves as a nutritive tonic in general weakness (Dey, 1980).

Distribution Indian gooseberry is found through out tropical and subtropical India, Sri Lanka and Malaca. It is abundant in deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh and Darjeeling, Sikkim and Kashmir. It is also widely cultivated.

Botany Phyllanthus emblica Linn. syn. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. belongs to Euphorbiaceae family. It is a small to medium sized deciduous tree growing up to 18m in height with thin light grey, bark exfoliating in small thin irregular flakes. Leaves are simple, many subsessile, closely set along the branchlets, distichous light green having the appearance of pinnate leaves. Flowers are greenish yellow in axillary fascicles, unisexual; males numerous on short slender pedicels; females few, subsessile; ovary 3-celled. Fruits are globose, 1-5cm in diameter, fleshy, pale yellow with 6 obscure vertical furrows enclosing 6 trigonous seeds in 2-seeded 3 crustaceous cocci. Two forms Amla are generally distinguished, the wild ones with smaller fruits and the cultivated ones with larger fruits and the latter are called ‘Banarasi’(Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology Gooseberry is quite hardy and it prefers a warm dry climate. It needs good sunlight and rainfall. It can be grown in almost all types of soils, except very sandy type. A large fruited variety “Chambakad Large“ was located from the rain shadow region of the Western Ghats for cultivation in Kerala. Amla is usually propagated by seeds and rarely by root suckers and grafts. The seeds are enclosed in a hard seed coat which renders the germination difficult. The seeds can be extracted by keeping fully ripe fruits in the sun for 2-3 days till they split open releasing the seeds. Seeds are soaked in water for 3-4 hours and sown on 50

previously prepared seed beds and irrigated. Excess irrigation and waterlogging are harmful. One month old seedlings can be transplanted to polythene bags and one year old seedlings can be planted in the main field with the onset of monsoon. Pits of size 50 cm3 are dug at 68m spacing and filled with a mixture of top soil and well rotten FYM and planting is done. Amla can also be planted as a windbreak around an orchard. Irrigation and weeding are required during the first year. Application of organic manure and mulching every year are highly beneficial. Chemical fertilisers are not usually applied. No serious pests or diseases are generally noted in this crop. Planted seedlings will commence bearing from the 10th year, while grafts after 3-4 years. The vegetative growth of the tree continues from April to July. Along with the new growth in the spring, flowering also commences. Fruits will mature by December-February. Fruit yield ranges from 30-50kg/tree/year when full grown (KAU,1993).

Properties and Activity Amla fruit is a rich natural source of vitamin C. It also contains cytokinin like substances identified as zeatin, zeatin riboside and zeatin nucleotide. The seeds yield 16% fixed oil, brownish yellow in colour. The plant contains tannins like glucogallia, corilagin, chebulagic acid and 3,6-digalloyl glucose. Root yields ellagic acid, lupeol, quercetin and sitosterol (Thakur et al, 1989). The fruit is diuretic, laxative, carminative, stomachic, astringent, antidiarrhoeal, antihaemorrhagic and antianaemic.

51

INDIAN BDELLIUM

Commiphora mukul

San: Gugulu, Mahisaksah, Koushikaha, Devadhupa Hin:Gugal Mal:Gulgulu Tam, Tel: Gukkulu

Kan: Guggul

Burseraceae Ben: Guggul

Importance Indian bdellium is a small, armed, deciduous tree from the bark of which gets an aromatic gum resin, the ‘Guggul’ of commerce. It is a versatile indigenous drug claimed by ayurvedists to be highly effective in the treatment of rheumatism, obesity, neurological and urinary disorders, tonsillitis, arthritis and a few other diseases. The fumes from burning guggul are recommended in hay- fever, chronic bronchitis and phytises. The price of guggulu gum has increased ten fold in ten years or so, indicating the increase in its use as well as decrease in natural plant stand. It has been listed as a threatened plant by Botanical Survey of India (Dalal, 1995) and is included in the Red Data Book (IUCN) and over exploited species in the country (Billare,1989).

Distribution The center of origin of Commiphora spp. is believed to be Africa and Asia. It is a widely adapted plant well distributed in arid regions of Africa ( Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia in north east and Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zaire in south west Africa), Arabian peninsula (Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Oman). Different species of Commiphora are distributed in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka states of India and Sind and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan (Tajuddin et al, 1994). In India, the main commercial source of gum guggul is Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Botany The genus Commiphora of family Burseraceae comprises about 185 species. Most of them occur in Africa, Saudi Arabia and adjoining countries. In India only four species have been reported. They are C. mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. syn. Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks), C. wightii (Arnott) Bhandari, C.stocksiana Engl., C. berryi and C.agallocha Engl. In early studies about the flora of India, the ‘guggul’ plant was known as Commiphora mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. or Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks). It was renamed as C. roxburghii by Santapau in 1962. According to Bhandari the correct Latin name of the species is C. wightii(Arnott) Bhandari, since the specific name ‘wightii’ was published in 1839, prior to ‘roxburghi’ in 1848 (Dalal and Patel, 1995). C. mukul is a small tree upto 3-4m height with spinescent branching. Stem is brownish or pale yellow with ash colored bark peeling off in flakes. Young parts are glandular and pubescent. Leaves are alternate, 1-3 foliate, obovate, leathery and serrate (sometimes only towards the apex). Lateral leaflets when present only less than half the size of the terminal ones. Flowers small, brownish red, with short pedicel seen in fascicles of 2-3. Calyx campanulate, glandular, hairy and 4-5 lobed. Corolla with brownish red, broadly linear petals reflexed at apex. Stamens 8-10, alternatively long and short. Ovary oblong, ovoid and stigma bifid. Fruit is a drupe and red when ripe, ovate in shape with 2-3 celled stones. The chromosome number 2n= 26 (Warrier et al, 1994; Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Agrotechnology Guggal being a plant of arid zone thrives well in arid- subtropical to tropical climate. The rainfall may average between 100mm and 500mm while air temperature may vary between 40C in summer and 3C during winter. Maximum relative humidity prevails during rainy season (83% in the morning and 48% in the evening).Wind velocity remains between 20-25 km/hour during the year is good. Though they prefer hard gypseous soil, they are found over sandy to silt loam soils, poor in organic matter but rich in several other minerals in arid tracks of western India (Tajuddin et al, 1994). Plants are propagated both by vegetatively and seeds. Plants are best raised from stem cuttings from the semi woody (old) branch. For this purpose one metre long woody 52

stem of 10mm thickness is selected and the cut end is treated with IBA or NAA and planted in a well manured nursery bed during June-July months; the beds should be given light irrigation periodically. The cuttings initiate sprouting in 10-15 days and grow into good green sprout in 10-12 months. These rooted plants are suitable for planting in the fields during the next rainy season. The cuttings give 80-94% sprouting usually. Air layering has also been successfully attempted and protocol for meristem culture is available in literature. Seed germination is very poor (5%) but seedling produce healthier plants which withstand high velocity winds. The rooted cuttings are planted in a well laid-out fields during rainy season. Pits of size 0.5m cube are dug out at 3-4 m spacing in rows and given FYM and filler soil of the pit is treated with BHC (10%) or aldrin (5%) to protect the new plants from white ants damage. Fertilizer trials have shown little response except due to low level of N fertilization. Removal of side branches and low level of irrigation supports a good growth of these plants. The plantation does not require much weeding and hoeing. But the soil around the bushes be pulverised twice in a year to increase their growth and given urea or ammonium sulphate at 25- 50g per bush at a time and irrigated. Dalal et al (1989) reported that cercospora leaf spot was noticed on all the cultures. Bacterial leaf blight was also noticed to attack the cultures. A leaf eating caterpillar (Euproctis lanata Walker) attack guggal, though not seriously. White fly (Bemisia tabaci) is observed to suck sap of leaves and such leaves become yellowish and eventually drop. These can be effectively controlled by using suitable insecticide. Stem or branch having maximum diameter of about 5cm at place of incision, irrespective of age is tapped. The necrotic patch on the bark is peeled off with a sharp knife and Bordeaux paste is applied to the exposed (peeled off ) surface of the stem or branch. A prick chisel of about 3cm width is used to make bark- deep incisions and while incising the bark, the chisel is held at an acute angle so that scooped suspension present on the body of the chisel flows towards the blade of the chisel and a small quantity of suspension flows inside the incised bark. If tapping is successful, gum exudation ensures after about 15-20 days from the date of incision and continues for nearly 30-45 days. The exuded gum slides down the stem or branch, and eventually drops on the ground and gets soiled. A piece of polythene sheet can be pouched around the place of incision to collect gum. Alternatively, a polythene sheet can be spread on the ground to collect exuded gum. A maximum of about 500g of gum has been obtained from a plant (Dalal, 1995).

Post harvest technology The best grade of guggul is collected from thick branches of tree. These lumps of guggul are translucent. Second grade guggul is usually mixed with bark, sand and is dull coloured guggul. Third grade guggul is usually collected from the ground which is mixed with sand, stones and other foreign matter. The final grading is done after getting cleansed material. Inferior grades are improved by sprinkling castor oil over the heaps of the guggul which impart it a shining appearance (Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Properties and Activity The gum resin contains guggul sterons Z and E, guggul sterols I-V, two diterpenoids- a terpene hydrocarbon named cembreneA and a diterpene alcohol- mukulol, -camphrone and cembrene, long chain aliphatic tetrols- octadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol, eicosan1,2,3,4-tetrol and nonadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol. Major components from essential oil of gum resin are myrcene and dimyrcene. Plant without leaves, flowers and fruits contains myricyl alcohol, -sitosterol and fifteen aminoacids. Flowers contain quercetin and its glycosides as major flavonoid components, other constituents being ellagic acid and pelargonidin glucoside (Patil et al, 1972; Purushothaman and Chandrasekharan, 1976). The gum resin is bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, aromatic, expectorant, digestive, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, antiseptic, demulcent, carminative,

53

emmenagogue, haematinic, diuretic, lithontriptic, rejuvenating and general tonic. Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic (Husain et al, 1992; Warrier et al, 1994).

54

INDIAN GINSENG

Withania somnifera

Solanceae

San: Aswagandha, Varahakarni Hin: Asgandh, Punir Mal: Amukkuram Tam: Amukkira Tel: Vajigandha Mar: Askandha Guj: Ghoda Kan: Viremaddinagaddi

Importance Indian ginseng or Winter cherry is an erect branching perennial undershrub which is considered to be one of the best rejuvenating agents in Ayurveda. Its roots, leaves and seeds are used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicines, to combat diseases ranging from tuberculosis to arthritis. The pharmacological activity of the plant is attributed to the presence of several alkaloids and withaniols. Roots are prescribed in medicines for hiccup, several female disorders, bronchitis, rheumatism, dropsy, stomach and lung inflammations and skin diseases. Its roots and paste of green leaves are used to relieve joint pains and inflammation. It is also an ingredient of medicaments prescribed for curing disability and sexual weakness in male. Leaves are used in eye diseases. Seeds are diuretic. It is a constituent of the herbal drug ‘Lactare’ which is a galactagogue. Aswagandha was observed to increase cell-mediated immunity, prevent stress induced changes in adrenal function and enhance protein synthesis. Milk fortified with it increases total proteins and body weight. It is a well known rejuvenating agent capable of imparting long life, youthful vigour and intellectual power. It improves physical strength and is prescribed in all cases of general debility. Aswagandha powder (6-12g) twice a day along with honey and ghee is advised for tuberculosis in Sushruta Samhita. It also provides sound sleep (Prakash, 1997).

Distribution Aswagandha is believed to have oriental origin. It is found wild in the forests of Mandsaur and Bastar in Mandhya Pradesh, the foot hills of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and western Himalayas in India. It is also found wild in the Mediterranean region in North America. In India it is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Rajastan and other drier parts of the country.

Botany Aswagandha belongs to the genus Withania and family Solanaceae. Two species, viz, W. coagulans Dunal and W. somnifera Dunal are found in India. W. coagulans is a rigid grey under shrub of 60-120cm high. W. somnifera is erect, evergreen, tomentose shrub, 3075cm in height. Roots are stout, fleshy, cylindrical, 1-2cm in diameter and whitish brown in colour. Leaves are simple, ovate, glabrous and opposite. Flowers are bisexual, inconspicuous, greenish or dull yellow in colour born on axillary umbellate cymes, comprising 5 sepals, petals and stamens each; the two celled ovary has a single style and a bilobed stigma. The petals are united and tubular. The stamens are attached to the corolla tube and bear erect anthers which form a close column or cone around the style. Pollen production is poor. The fruit is a small berry, globose, orange red when mature and is enclosed in persistent calyx. The seeds are small, flat, yellow and reniform in shape and very light in weight. The chromosome number 2n = 48. The cultivated plants have sizable differences from the wild forms not only in their morphological characters but also in the therapeutical action, though the alkaloids present are the same in both (Kaul, 1957). Some botanists, therefore, described the cultivated plant distinct from wild taxa and have coined a new name W. aswagandha (Kaul, 1957) which is contested by Atal and Schwarting (1961).

Agrotechnology Asgandh is a tropical crop growing well under dry climate. The areas receiving 600 to 750mm rainfall is best suited to this crop. Rainy season crop requires relatively dry season and the roots are fully developed when 1-2 late winter rains are received. Sandy loam or light red soils having a pH of 7.5- 8.0 with good drainage are suitable for its cultivation. It is usually cultivated on poor and marginal soils. Withania is propagated through seeds. It 55

is a late kharif crop and planting is done in August. Seeds are either broadcast-sown or seedlings are raised in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 10-12 kg/ha for broadcasting and 5kg/ha for transplanting. In direct sown crop plants are thinned and gap filling is done 25-30 days after sowing. Seeds should be treated with Dithane M-45 at 3g/kg of seeds before sowing. Seeds are sown in the nursery just before the onset of rainy season and covered with light soil. Seeds germinate in 6-7 days. When seedlings are six weeks old they are transplanted at 60cm in furrows taken 60cm apart. The crop is mainly grown as a rainfed crop on residual fertility and no manure or fertilizers are applied to this crop generally. However, application of organic manure is beneficial for realizing better yields. It is not a fertilizer responsive crop. One hand weeding 25-30 days after sowing helps to control weeds effectively. No serious pest is reported in this crop. Diseases like seedling rot and blight are observed. Seedling mortality becomes serious under high temperature and humid conditions. The disease can be minimized by use of disease free seeds and treatment with thiram or deltan at 3-4g/kg seed before sowing. Further, use of crop rotation, timely sowing and keeping field well drained also protect the crop. Spraying with 0.3% fytolan, dithane Z-78 or dithane M-45 will help controlling the disease incidence. Spraying is repeated at 15 days interval if the disease persists. Aswagandha is a crop of 150-170 days duration. The maturity of the crop is judged by the drying of the leaves and reddening of berries. Harvesting usually starts from January and continues till March. Roots, leaves and seeds are the economical parts. The entire plant is uprooted for roots, which are separated from the aerial parts. The berries are plucked from dried plants and are threshed to obtain the seeds. The yield is 400-500kg of dry roots and 50-75kg seeds per hectare.

Post harvest technology The roots are separated from the plant by cutting the stem 1-2cm above the crown. Roots are then cut into small pieces of 7-10cm to facilitate drying. Occasionally, the roots are dried as a whole. The dried roots are cleaned, trimmed, graded, packed and marketed. Roots are carefully hand sorted into the following four grades. Grade A : Root pieces 7cm long, 1-1.5cm diameter, brittle, solid, and pure white from outside. Grade B : Root pieces 5cm long, 1cm diameter, brittle, solid and white from outside. Grade C : Root pieces 3-4cm long, less than 1cm diameter and solid. Lower grade : Root pieces smaller, hollow and yellowish from outside.

Properties and activity Aswagandha roots contain alkaloids, starch, reducing sugar, hentriacontane, glycosides, dulcital, withaniol acid and a neutral compound. Wide variation (0.13-0.31%) is observed in alkaloid content. Majumdar (1955) isolated 8 amorphous bases such as withanine, somniferine, somniferinine, somnine, withananine, withananinine, pseudowithanine and withasomnine. Other alkaloids reported are nicotine, tropine, pseudotropine, 3,-tigloyloxytropane, choline, cuscudohygrine, anaferine, anahygrine and others. Free aminoacids in the roots include aspartic acid, glycine, tyrosine, alanine, proline, tryptophan, glutamic acid and cystine. Leaves contain 12 withanolides, alkaloids, glycosides, glucose and free amino acids. Berries contain a milk coagulating enzyme, two esterases, free amino acids, fatty oil, essential oil and alkaloids. Methods for alkaloid’s analysis in Asgandh roots have also been reported (Majumdar, 1955; Mishra, 1989; Maheshwari, 1989). Withania roots are astringent, bitter, acrid, somniferous, thermogenic, stimulant, aphrodisiac, diuretic and tonic. Leaf is antibiotic, antitumourous, antihepatotoxic and antiinflammatory. Seed is milk coagulating, hypnotic and diuretic.

56

NEEM

Azadirachta indica

Meliaceae

San: Nimbah, Prabhadrah Hin, Ben: Nim, Nim Mal: Aryaveppu Tel: Vepa Ori: Nimba Tam: Vembu, Veppu Pun: Bakam,Bukhain Guj: Limba Kan: Bevu Mar: Limbu

Importance Neem or margose tree, also known as Indian lilac is a highly exploited medicinal plant of Indian origin, widely grown and cultivated throughout India. Every part of the tree, namely root, bark, wood, twig, leaf, flower, fruit, seed, kernel and oil has been in use from time immemorial in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine. Nimbarishta, nimbadi churna and nimbharidra khand are well known preparations. It is valuable as an antiseptic, used in the treatment of small pox. Small twigs are used as tooth brushes and as a prophylactic for mouth and teeth complaints. Extract from the leaves are useful for sores, eczema and skin diseases. Boiled and smashed leaves serve as excellent antiseptic. Decoction of leaves is used for purifying blood. Neem oil is used in soaps, toothpaste and as a hair tonic to kill lice. Seed is used in snake bite. The fruits and leaves being renewable, provide sustainable returns. Different parts of the fruit are separated into components and each one produces derivatives of varying chemical nature and utility. Neem derivatives are now used in agriculture, public health, human and veterinary medicines, toiletries, cosmetics and livestock production. Applications as pesticides, allied agrochemicals, plant nutrients and adjuvants for improving nitrogen use efficiency are of much importance. Neem kernel suspension (1%) is a house hold insecticide. Pesticide formulations containing azadirachtin are now commercially available in India, USA, Canada, Australia and Germany. Neem cake is rich in N, P, K, Ca and S. Neem Meliacins like epinimbin and nimbidin are commercially exploited for the preparation of slow and extended release of nutrients including nitrification inhibitors (Eg. Nimin). Extracts of neem seed oil and bark check the activity of male reproductive cells and prevents sperm production. Neem seed oil is more effective than the bark for birth control. Neem based commercial products are also available for diabetes treatment (Nimbola, JK-22), contraceptive effect (Sensal, Nim-76) and mosquito/ insect repelling (Srivastava, 1989; Tewari, 1992; Parmer and Katkar, 1993; Pushpangadan et al, 1993; Mariappan, 1995).

Distribution Neem is a native of the Siwalik deccan parts of South India. It grows wild in the dry forests of Andra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It has spread to Pakistan, Bangladesh , Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Middle East Sudan and Niger. It is now grown in Australia, Africa, Fiji, Mauritious, Central and South America, the Carribeans, Puerto Rico and Haiti. The largest known plantation of nearly 50,000 trees is at Arafat plains en route to Mecca in Saudi Arabia for providing shade to Haj pilgrims (Ahmed, 1988).

Botany The genus Azadirachta of family Meliaceae comprises two species: A. indica A. Juss syn. Melia azadirachta Linn. and A. excelsa (Jack) Jacobs syn. A. integrifolia Mers., the latter being found in Philippines, Sumatra, Malaya, Borneo and New Guinea. Neem is a hardy medium to large, mostly evergreen tree attaining 20m height and 2.5m girth. It has a short bole with wide spreading branches and glabrous twigs forming a round to oval crown. The bark is thick, dark-gray with numerous longitudinal furrows and transverse cracks. Leaves are imparipinnately compound, alternate, exstipulate and 20-38cm long. Inflorescence is long, slender, axillary or terminal panicle. Flowers are white or pale yellow, small, bisexual, pentamerous and bracteate. Stamens 10; filaments unite to form a moniliform tube. Gynoecium is tricarpellary and syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular. Each carpel bears two collateral ovules on parietal placentation. Fruit is one seeded drupe with woody endocarp, greenish yellow when ripe. Seed ellipsoid, cotyledons thick fleshy and oily. Neem has chromosome number 2n = 28. Neem trees tend to become deciduous for a brief period in dry ecology. Ecotypes, exhibiting morphological variation in root growth, 57

leaf size, contents, bole length , canopy, inflorescence, fruit bearing, seed size, shape and quality exist in natural populations.

Agrotechnology Neem grows in tropical arid regions with high temperatures, altitudes between 50m and 1000m, as little rainfall as 130mm/yr and long stretches of drought. Well drained sunny hill places are ideal. It grows on most kinds of soils including dry, stony, shallow, nutrient deficient soils with scanty vegetation, moderately saline and alkali soils, black cotton, compact clays and laterite crusts. However, silty flats, clayey depressions and land prone to inundation are not conducive for its growth (Chaturvedi, 1993). Soil pH of 5.0 to 10.0 is ideal. It brings surface soil to neutral pH by its leaf litter. It has extensive and deeply penetrating root system capable of extracting moisture and nutrients even from highly leached poor sandy soils. Neem propagates easily by seed without any pretreatment, though it can be regenerated by vegetative means like root and shoot cuttings. Seeds are collected from June to August. These remain viable for 3-5 weeks only which necessitates sowing within this short time. Seeds may be depulped and soaked in water for 6 hours before sowing. Seeds are sown on nursery beds at 15x5cm spacing, covered with rotten straw and irrigated. Germination takes 15-30 days. Seedlings can be transplanted after two months of growth onwards either to polybags or to mainfield. Neem can be grown along with agricultural crops like groundnut, bean, millets, sorghum and wheat. It is also suitable for planting in roadsides, for afforestation of wastelands and under agroforestry system. For field planting, pits of size 50-75 cm cube are dug 5-6m apart, filled with top soil and well rotten manure, formed into a heap, and seedling is planted at the centre of the heap. FYM is applied at 1020 kg/plant every year. Chemical fertilizers are not generally applied. Irrigation and weeding are required during the first year for quick establishment. More than 38 insect pests are reported on Neem which may become serious at times. The important ones are seed and flower insect (Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood), defoliators (Boarmia variegata Moore and Eurema sp.), sap suckers ( Helopeltes antonii Signoret and Pulvinaria maxima Green) , root feeders (Hototrichia consanguinea Blanchard), mealy bug (Pseudococus gilbertensis), scale insect (Parlatoria orientalis) and a leaf webber (Loboschiza Koenigiana)(Beeson, 1941, Bhasin et al, 1958, Parmar, 1995). They can be controlled by the application of 0.01-0.02% monocrotophos or dimethoate. No serious diseases are reported in Neem. Flowering starts after 5 years. In India flowering is during January-May and fruits mature from May-August. The leaves are shed during FebruaryMarch and a full grown tree produces about 350 kg dry leaves and 40-50 kg berries per annum. Fresh fruits give 60% dry fruits which yield 10% kernel which contains 45% fixed oil, on an average. After 10 years of growth the wood can be cut and used as timber.

Properties and Activity Dry Neem leaves contain carbohydrates 47-51%, crude protein 14-19%, crude fiber 11-24%, fat 2-7%, ash 7-9%, Ca 0.8-2.5% and P 0.1-0.2%. Leaves also contain the flavanoid quercetin, nimbosterol (-sitosterol), kaempferol and myricetin. Seed and oil contains desacetylnimbin, azadirachtin (C35H44O16), nimbidol, meliantriol ,tannic acid, S and amino acids. Neem cake contain the highest sulphur content of 1.07% among all the oil cakes. Trunk bark contains nimbin 0.04%, nimbinin 0.001%, nimbidin 0.4%, nimbosterol 0.03%, essential oil 0.02%, tannins 6.0 %, margosine and desacetylnimbin (Atal and Kapur, 1982; Thakur et al 1989). Neem bark is bitter, astringent, acrid, refrigerant, depurative, antiperiodic, vulnerary, demulcent, insecticidal, liver tonic, expectorant and anthelmintic. Leaves are bitter, astringent, acrid, depurative, antiseptic, ophthalmic, anthelmintic, alexeteric, appetizer, insecticidal, demulcent and refrigerant. Seed and oil are bitter, acrid, thermogenic,

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purgative, emollient, anodyne, anthelmintic depurative, vulnerary, uterine stimulant, urinary astringent, pesticidal and antimicrobial (Warrier et al, 1993).

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CINCHONA San: Cinchona, Kunayanah

Cinchona spp. Hin: Kunain

Mal: Cinchona, Quoina

Rubiaceae Tam: Cinchona

Importance Cinchona, known as Quinine, Peruvian or Crown bark tree is famous for the antimalarial drug ‘quinine’ obtained from the bark of the plant. The term cinchona is believed to be derived from the countess of cinchon who was cured of malaria by treating with the bark of the plant in 1638. Cinchona bark has been valued as a febrifuge by the Indians of south and central America for a long time. Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from the plant; the most important among them being quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. These alkaloids exist mainly as salts of quinic, quinovic and cinchotannic acids. The cultivated bark contains 7-10% total alkaloids of which about 70% is quinine. Similarly 60% of the total alkaloids of root bark is quinine. Quinine is isolated from the total alkaloids of the bark as quinine sulphate. Commercial preparations contain cinchonidine and dihydroquinine. They are useful for the treatment of malarial fever, pneumonia, influenza, cold, whooping couphs, septicaemia, typhoid, amoebic dysentery, pin worms, lumbago, sciatica, intercostal neuralgia, bronchial neuritis and internal hemorrhoids. They are also used as anesthetic and contraceptive. Besides, they are used in insecticide compositions for the preservation of fur, feathers, wool, felts and textiles. Over doses of these alkaloids may lead to deafness, blindness, weakness, paralysis and finally collapse, either comatose or deleterious. Quinidine sulphate is cardiac depressant and is used for curing arterial fibrillation.

Distribution Cinchona is native to tropical South America. It is grown in Bolivia, Peru, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Columbia, Indonesia, Tanzania, Kenya, Zaire and Sri Lanka. It was introduced in 1808 in Guatemala,1860 in India, 1918 in Uganda, 1927 in Philippines and in 1942 in Costa Rica. Roy Markham introduced the plant to India. The first plantation was raised in Nilgiris and later on in Darjeeling of West Bengal. The value of the tree was learnt by Jessuit priests who introduced the bark to Europe. It first appeared in London pharmacopoeia in 1677 (Husain, 1993).

Botany The quinine plant belongs to the family Rubiaceae and genus Cinchona which comprises over 40 species. Among these a dozen are medicinally important. The commonly cultivated species are C. calisaya Wedd., C. ledgeriana Moens, C. officinalis Linn., C. succirubra Pav. ex Kl., C. lancifolia and C. pubescens. Cinchona species have the chromosome number 2n=68. C. officinalis Linn. is most common in India. It is an evergreen tree reaching a height of 10-15m. Leaves are opposite, elliptical, ovate- lanceolate, entire and glabrous. Flowers are reddish-brown in short cymbiform, compound cymes, terminal and axillary; calyx tubular, 5-toothed, obconical, subtomentose, sub-campanulate, acute, triangular, dentate, hairy; corolla tube 5 lobed, densely silky with white depressed hairs, slightly pentagonal; stamens 5; style round, stigma submersed. Fruit is capsule ovoidoblong; seeds elliptic, winged margin octraceous, crinulate-dentate (Biswas and Chopra, 1982).

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Agrotechnology The plant widely grows in tropical regions having an average minimum temperature of 14C. Mountain slopes in the humid tropical areas with well distributed annual rainfall of 1500-1950mm are ideal for its cultivation. Well drained virgin and fertile forest soils with pH 4.5-6.5 are best suited for its growth. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Cinchona is propagated through seeds and vegetative means. Most of the commercial plantations are raised by seeds. Vegetative techniques such as grafting, budding and softwood cuttings are employed in countries like India, Sri Lanka, Java and Guatemala. Cinchona succirubra is commonly used as root stock in the case of grafting and budding. Hormonal treatment induces better rooting. Seedlings are first raised in nursery under shade. Raised seedbeds of convenient size are prepared, well decomposed compost or manure is applied , seeds are broadcasted uniformly at 2g/m2, covered with a thin layer of sand and irrigated. Seeds germinate in 10-20 days. Seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags after 3 months. These can be transplanted into the field after 1 year at 1-2m spacing. Trees are thinned after third year for extracting bark , leaving 50% of the trees at the end of the fifth year. The crop is damaged by a number of fungal diseases like damping of caused by Rhizoctoria solani, tip blight by Phytophthora parasatica, collar rot by Sclerotiun rolfsii, root rot by Phytophthora cinnamomi, Armillaria mellea and Pythium vexans. Field sanitation, seed treatment with organo mercurial fungicide, burning of infected plant parts and spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture are recommended for the control of the diseases (Crandall, 1954). Harvesting can be done in one or two phases. In one case, the complete tree is uprooted, after 8-10 years when the alkaloid yield is maximum. In another case, the tree is cut about 30cm from the ground for bark after 6-7 years so that fresh sprouts come up from the stem to yield a second crop which is harvested with the under ground roots after 6-7 years. Both the stem and root are cut into convenient pieces, bark is separated, dried in shade, graded, packed and traded. Bark yield is 9000-16000kg/ha (Husain, 1993).

Properties and activity Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from Cinchona bark, the most important among them are quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, cinchophyllamine and idocinchophyllamine. There is considerable variation in alkaloid content ranging from 4% to 20%. However, 6-8% yield is obtained from commercial plantations. The non alkaloidal constituents present in the bark are bitter glycosides, -quinovin, cinchofulvic, cinchotannic and quinic acids, a bitter essential oil possessing the odour of the bark and a red coloring matter. The seed contains 6.13% fixed oil. Quinine and its derivatives are bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, febrifuge, oxytocic, anodyne, anti-bacterial, anthelmintic, digestive, depurative, constipating, anti pyretic, cardiotonic, antiinflammatory, expectorant and calcifacient (Warrier et al, 1994; Bhakuni and Jain, 1995).

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GLORY LILY

Gloriosa superba

San : Langali, Visalya, Agnishika,Shakrapushpi, Garbhaghatini Mal: Menthonni Tam: Akkinichilam Guj: Dudhiya vachnag Kan: Nangulika Ben: Bishalanguli Ori: Dangogahana

Liliaceae Hin : Kalihari Pan: Kariari Mar: Nagakaria Tel : Adavinabhi

Importance Glory lily is a glabrous herbaceous climber which yields different types of troplone alkaloids of medicinal importance. The major alkaloids are colchicine, 3-demethyl colchicine and colchicoside. There is another alkaloid gloriosine which promises to be even more effective than colchicine in plant breeding for inducing polyploidy. The genus has importance in the ornamental horticulture due to its bright flowers and wiry climbing stem. The roots and rhizomes are used in traditional system of medicine. Its abortifacient and antipyretic properties have been mentioned in ancient classics “Charaka”. The name Garbhaghatini is due to this abortifacient activity. They are useful in the treatment of inflammations, ulcers, scrofula, hemorrhoids, pruritus, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, flatulence, intermittent fevers and debility. The root is given internally as an effective antidote against cobra poison. A paste of the root is also used as an anodyne; applications in bites of poisonous insects, snake bites, scorpion sting, parasitic skin diseases and leprosy (Nadkarni,1954; Chaudhuri and Thakur; 1994).

Distribution The plant is distributed throughout tropical India upto an altitude of 2500m and in Andaman islands. It is also cultivated in tropical and South Africa, Madagaskar, Indonesia and Malasia. It is reported to be cultivated in some parts of Europe. In India it was cultivated in RRL, Jammu in 1960s. Recently it was taken up by Indian Council of Agricultural Research(ICAR). Cultivation of the plant is mostly confined to the Southern states of India besides its collection from wild sources.

Botany Gloriosa superba Linn. belongs to Liliaceae family. It is a glabrous climbing herb with tuberous root stock grows over hedges and small trees. Stem is 6m long which grows to a height of 1.2-1.5m before the stem branches. Leaves are simple, alternate or whorled, sessile, ovate-lanceolate, 17x4.5cm, tip elongating into a spirally coiled tendril, base cordate and margin entire. Flowers are large in terminal racemes; perianth segments 6, linear, flexuosus and deflexed, basal half bright yellow, upper half red; stamens 6; ovary glabrous, 3-celled. Fruits are capsules, linear-oblong, upto 6.8cm long, 3 equal lobes, one or two lobes shorter in malformed fruits; green dried to pale and then black colour, dehisced into three sections. Seeds are oval in shape, testa spongy, embryo cylindric, 30-150 seeds per capsule, pale orange attached to the sutures. Tubers are cylindric, large, simple, ‘V’ shaped with the two limps equal or unequal in lenth pointed towards end brownish externally and yellowish internally. (Narain, 1977)

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Agrotechnology This is a rainy season plant and sprouts well in warm, humid and tropical conditions. It should be grown in sun as the plants in shade become weedy and thin and move towards light. G. superba is a shallow rooted plant and grows well in a variety of soils either clay or sand through out India. It grows well in a light porous soil with good drainage. For vigorous growth, greater blooms and strong tuber, a mixture of soil, sand and compost manure is recommended. The propagation is mainly by tubers, by division of rhizomes. Seeds remain dormant for 6-9 months and due to hard seed coat, about 20-30 days are required for germination and seeds may take 3-4 years before it matures to flower. Treatment of seeds by gibberellin(1-3 ppm) resulted in higher yield of colchicine in the plant and higher production of tubers. In tissue culture, young sprouts are cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s medium (Msb) supplemented with kinetin (1-4 mg/l). Direct regeneration of the explants are obtained. The seeds and rhizomes are sown usually in the last week of June to mid July. The rhizomes are planted by splitting carefully into two from their ‘V’ shaped joints ( two buds being at the extreme end of each rhizome) in lines 20cm apart at a distance of 20cm (while seeds are sown in lines at a distance of 4-6cm apart). They are watered regularly when the plants are growing. After green shoots appear 2-3 showers are weekly. The irradiation of the plant at 42% natural sunlight intensity increased the production of tuber and colchicine. They usually takes 6-10 weeks to flower after sprouting and then set on fruits. The fruits ripen at the end of October and after that aerial shoot eventually dies, leaving the fleshy tubers underground. The tubers are dug out with great care. An individual plant produces 50g tubers on an average. The average yield is approximately 4000-5000kg of rhizomes and 1000 kg of seed per hectare. The content of colchicine is usually 0.358% and 1.013% in tubers and seeds, respectively.

Post harvest technology Lixivation of the material is done with 70% ethyl alcohol. Concentrated under vacuum to one third of its volume and extracted with chloroform for colchicine and related substances-concentration of the aqueous phase to syrup which is extracted 6-8 times with a mixture of CHCl3 - alcohol (4:1) to yield colchicoside.

Properties and activity The flowers, leaves and tubers contain colchicine, superbin, N-formyl deacetyl colchicine, demethyl colochicine and lumicolchicine. Tubers also contain gloriosine. Leaves in addition, contain chelidonic acid, 2-hydroxy 6-methoxy benzoic acid and -sitosterol glucoside. Colchicine, demethyl colchicine and colchicoside have been reported from seeds. Rhizome is oxytocic, anticancerous, antimalarial, stomachic, purgative, cholagogue, anthelmintic, alterative, febrifuge and antileprotic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and antiinflammatory. Root shows antigonorrhoeic and antibiotic activity. This plant has poisonous effect to enviroment and livestock. The toxic properties are due to presence of alkaloids chiefly colchicine (Clewer et al, 1915).

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LIQUORICE San: Yashtimadhu Tel: Yashtimadhukam

Glycyrrhiza glabra Hin: Jathimadh Mal: Irattimadhuram Ben: Yashtomadhu Pun:Muleti

Papilionaceae Tam:Athimadhuram

Importance Liquorice or Muleti is a perennial herb or undershrub about 1m high. Its dried peeled or unpeeled underground stems and roots constitute the drug which is an important constituent of all cough and catarrh syrups, throat lozenges and pastilles. This has been used in medicine for more than 4000 years. Hippocrates (400 BC) mentioned its use as a remedy for ulcers and quenching of thirst. Dioscorides, the father of Greek medicine described this drug in detail and considered it useful for maintaining shape of arteries and in burning stomach, trouble of liver and kidney, scabies, healing of wounds and as a remedy for eye diseases. It has been used in Arab system of medicine for more than 600 years from where it has been adopted to modern medicine (Gibson, 1978). The commercial name of the dried rhizome and root of the plant is liquorice which is used as flavouring agent and the taste coorigent in pharmaceutical and confectionery industries and its products are widely reported to be useful in ulcer therapy. Glycyrrhizin, a triterpene glucoside, is the principal constituent of G. glabra which is 50 times sweeter than sugar.

Distribution Liquorice is native to Mediterranean region, South Europe and Middle East. It is widely distributed in Spain, Italy, Greece, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, parts of USSR and China. However its cultivation is limited to small areas in USSR, UK, and USA. In India, it grows in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. Semi arid areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarath states are suitable for the cultivation of Liquorice. However, its commercial cultivation has not yet been possible and the domestic requirement is largely met through imports.

Botany Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. belongs to the family Papilionaceae. The word Glycyrrhiza is of Greek origin meaning ‘sweet’ and glabra means ‘smooth’ which refers to smooth fruit of the species. This is a tall perennial, self pollinated herb or undershrub about 1m high with long cylindrical burrowing rootstock and horizontal creeping stolons which reach 1.5-1.8m in length. Leaves are alternate, pinnate with 9-17 leaflets. Leaflets are yellowish-green, 2.5-5cm long, ovate and obtuse. Flowers are pale blue arranged in a raceme and 1.25cm long. Calyx is glandular and pubescent. The pods are glabrous, red to brown having 3-4 seeds. Rhizome is soft, flexible and fibrous with light yellow colour and a characteristic sweet taste.

Agrotechnology This plant thrives well in subtropical areas with very warm summers and cool winters with a rainfall not exceeding 500mm. Semi-arid and arid areas in subtropical zones 64

are not suitable for the cultivation of this crop. It does not tolerate high humidity and waterlogged conditions. Well drained light loam soils which are rich in calcium and magnesium with slightly alkaline pH and free from stones are ideal for this crop. There are a number of varieties of this crop among which Spanish, Russian and Persian liquorice are quite common. Commercial varieties are Typica, Regel and Herd. This is propagated by seed, but usually multiplied vegetatively either through crown cuttings or stolon pieces. In the case of crown cuttings, 10-15cm long crown pieces with 2-3 buds are planted vertically at a distance of 0.6-0.7m in rows 1-1.5m apart. However, most of the liquorice is propagated through stolon pieces of the above size planted horizontally, preferably on ridges during spring at the same distance as above. Rapid clonal propagation is also possible by tissue culture technique. Murashige and Skoog’s medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine and indole-3-acetic acid favoured multiple shoot production without any intervening callus phase. These regenerated plantlets can be transferred to earthen pots in the glass house and after a brief hardening phase, these are transplanted in the field with a high rate (90-95%) of survival. This plant normally does not require much fertilizers but in deficient soils, it is better to apply 10-15 tonnes FYM per hectare before planting. The field should be immediately irrigated after planting in spring and after the crop has sprouted, it requires very little irrigation. Space between the rows should be kept free from weeds. Short term vegetables like carrot or cabbage can be planted between the rows for additional income. In order to produce good rhizome, flowering shoots are clipped. No serious disease except leaf spot caused by Cercospora cavarae has been reported in this crop. Roots are ready for harvesting after 3-4 years. The root is dug when the top has dried during autumn (November-December). A trench 60cm deep is dug along the ridges and the entire root is lifted. Broken parts of the root left in the soil, sprout again and give another crop after 2-3 years. Thus liquorice once planted properly can be harvested for 10-15 years.

Postharvest technology Harvested roots are cut into pieces of 15-20cm long and 1-2cm in diameter. They are washed and dried upto 6-8% moisture in the sun and shade alternately which reduces the weight by 50%. The average yield of dried roots varies from 1-3 tonnes per hectare depending on the variety, soil and climatic conditions.

Properties and activity Roots gave a number of compounds the most important bieng a glucoside, glycyrrhizin which gave glycyrrhetinic acid on enzyme hydrolysis. Root also contains flavans, flavones, iso-flavanoes and coumarins including a 4-methyl coumarin, liqcoumarin, glabridin, glabrene, 4’-0-methyl and 3’-methoxyglabridin, formononetin, salicylic acid, 0acetyl salicylic acid which has been isolated first time from nature, hispaglabridins A and B and 4’0-methylglabridin.On hydrolysis it also gave two molecules of d-glucuronic acid, each linked with 1-2 linkage to 3-hydroxyl of the sapogenin (Elgamal et al, 1969) Glycyrrhizin is antidiuretic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, antiulcerous, antihistamine. Glycyrrhizic acid is antiviral. The roots are emetic, tonic, diuretic, demulcent, mild laxative, aphrodisiac, trichogenous, expectorant, emmenagogue, alexipharmic, alterant and intellect promoting.

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66

GREATER GALANGAL

Alpinia galanga

Zingiberaceae

San:Sugandhamula, Rasna; Hin:Kulainjan; Mal:Aratta, Chittaratha; Tam:Arattai; Guj: Kolinjan; Kan: Dumba-rasmi; Mar: Kosht-Kulinjan; Tel: Pedda-dumparash-tram

Importance The greater galangal, Java galangal or Siamese ginger is a perennial aromatic rhizomatous herb. This plant is cultivated for its rhizome in tropical areas of south and East India. Because of the presence of essential oil, the rhizomes are used in bronchial troubles and as a carminative. They are also useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammations, stomatopathy, pharyngopathy, cough, asthma, hiccough, dyspepsia, stomachalgia, obesity, diabetes, cephalagia, tubercular glands and intermittent fevers. It is one of the ingredients of medicated “Pan” used for removing the foul smell of the mouth and getting relief in throat inflammation. In Ayurveda, “Rasnasaptak-kwath” and “Rasna-adikamath” are used as antiinflammatory decoctions. In Unani, it is an ingredient of aphrodisiac preparations, “Majun Mugawivi ma Mumsik”, “Majun Samagh”, and antispasmodic nervine tonic “Majun Chobchine” and “Lubab Motadil”. It is also used in “Arq Pan” as a cardiac stimulant and carminative.

Distribution The Java galangal is mainly distributed in Eastern Himalayas and South-West India. This is very common in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Kerala, Karnataka and throughout the Western Ghats. It is cultivated also in these places. They are also found in countries like Sri Lanka and Malaya.

Botany Alpinia galanga (Linn.) Willd. belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial herb, about 2m high with lower portion covered with smooth leaf sheaths. The leaves are broadly lanceolate, 30-60cm long and 10-15cm broad. The flowers are arranged in erect, terminal panicles. composed of numerous spreading dichotomous branches each with two to six, pale greenish-white faintly fragrant flowers. Fruits 1.25 cm long, oblong, constricted in the middle or even pear shaped, three sided and deep orange red in colour. Seeds are ash coloured, three angled, finely striated towards the hilum. Both the seeds and rhizomes have pungent aroma. Apinia calcarata (Linn.) Willd is another species of the genus with much medicinal importance. It is shorter in stature but stronger in aroma than Alpinia galanga.

Agrotechnology Siamese Ginger comes up well in tropical climate. It grows on a wide range of climates and soils. Well drained hilly areas and places of 1400m high altitude are good for its cultivation. This is commercially propagated vegetatively by rhizomes. The field should be ploughed to a good tilth. All the stones and pebbles should be removed. Organic manures at 10t/ha are applied during land preparation. Seedbeds are prepared with 1m breadth, 2m length and 15cm height. Small pits are made at 25cm spacing above the seedbeds and 5cm long rhizomes are planted. Seedbeds are covered with dried leaves. It is irrigated 67

immediately after planting. Regular weeding is needed during the initial stages of crop growth. This is cultivated also as an intercrop in coconut or rubber plantations. Rhizomes are dug out after cutting the top portions when the crop reaches 1.5-2 years of maturity. The average yield is 10-15 tonnes of fresh rhizomes/ha and the driage is 25-30%. The collected rhizomes are washed and cut into pieces of 5cm long and dried in sun for 4 days before sale.

Properties and Activity The rhizome contains tannins and flavonoids, some of which have been identified as kaempferide, galangin and alpinin. Seeds contain 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate and 1’-acetoxy eugenol acetate, antiulcer principles caryophyllenols I and II, n-pentadecane, 7-heptadecane and fatty acid methyl esters. Rhizomes yield essential oil containing methyl cinnamate, cineole and d-pinene and sesquiterpenoids. Fresh rhizome yielded 18 monoterpenoids of which -pinene, -pinene and limonene as major compounds and 17 oxygen containing monoterpenoids with cineol, terpinen-4-o1, and -terpineol as minor compounds. The rhizomes are bitter, acrid, thermogenic, aromatic, nervine tonic, stimulant, revulsive, carminative, stomachic, disinfectant, aphrodisiac, expectorant, broncho-dilator, antifungal, febrifuge, antiinflammatory and tonic. Rhizome is CVS and CNS active, diuretic, hypothermic. Seed is antiulcerative. Rhizome spray in ether, over a space showed high knock down values against houseflies. Alcohol (50%) extract of rhizome is antiamphetaminic. Unani physicians consider it good for impotence.

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COMMON INDIGO

Indigofera tinctoria

Papilionaceae

San:Nilini, Ranjani, Nilika, Neelam, Aklika, Asita, Bhadra; Ben, Guj:Nil; Hin:Gouli; Mal: Neelamari; Tam: Averi; Tel: Aviri, Nili; Kan: Nili; Mar: Nali; Ori: Neli

Importance Common indigo or Indian indigo is a branching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Nili is a reputed drug produced from this plant which is used in ayurveda for the promotion of hair growth and it forms a major ingredient of preparations like nilibhringadi oil. This is the original source of natural indigo. Due to antitoxic property it is also a good remedy for poisons. According to Bhavaprakasa, nili is purgative in action, bitter, hot, cures giddiness, abdominal enlargement, vatarakta, gout and intestinal obstruction. The decoction or powder of the plant is used in whooping cough, bronchitis, palpitation of the heart, enlargement of the liver and spleen, dropsy, diseases of lungs and kidney, epilepsy and nervous disorders. A poultice of the leaves is recommended in skin diseases, piles, ulcer and haemorrhoids. A wine glass full juice of the leaves is administered in the morning with or without milk for three days to those who have been bitten by mad dogs. Root decoction is given in calculous diseases and used as an antidote to arsenic poisoning. The seed of the plant is powered and steeped in arrack or rum, yield a tincture, which is used to distroy lice. Indigo, the dye extracted from the leaves, is a soothing balm for burns and scalds, insect stings and animal bites. The synonyms visaghni and sodhani indicate the antitoxic and laxative properties of the drug nili, respectively (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1960).

Distribution This plant is distributed in South and South East Asia, tropical Africa and is introduced in tropical America. In India, it is found almost throughout and cultivated in many parts.

Botany Indigofera tinctoria Linn. syn. I. summatrana Gaertn, Pigmentum indicum belongs to Papilionaceae family. This is a branching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Stems and branches are green; branchlets silvery pubescent. Leaves are alternate, stipulate, imparipinnate and got 7-13 leaflets which are elliptic-oblong, membraneous,1.7x0.9cm, shortly mucronate, pale green or bluish. Flowers are small, rose-coloured in axillary racemes. Calyx 5-cleft, gamosepalous; corolla papilionaceous; stamens diadelphous; ovary sessile with a short incurved style ending in a capitate stigma. Pods are linear, cylindrical, 25cm long, deflexed having 8-12 seeds.

Agrotechnology The Indian indigo requires good sunlight and grows well in hilly areas. This is usually propagated by seeds. Seeds are very small and the seed rate is 3kg/ha. Seeds require pretreatment for good germination as the seed coat is hard. Seeds are mixed with sand and ground gently to break the seed coat. An alternate method for enhancing germination is dipping the seeds in boiling water for a second. After pretreatment seeds are broadcasted. Broadcast the seeds preferably mixed with sand 2 or 3 times its volume to ensure uniform coverage. The seedbeds should be covered with straw and irrigated. Seeds germinate within 69

15 days. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month. For the land preparation, the soil is brought to fine tilth by ploughing 2 or 3 times. Cattle manure should be applied at the rate of 10t/ha as basal dressing and incorporated into soil along with last ploughing. The best time for sowing is September-October. Weeding has to be done two times; 3 weeks after sowing and 6 weeks after sowing. Plants start flowering 2-3 months after sowing. Harvesting is done by cutting the plants at this time, at a height of about 10cm from ground level. Irrigate plants after harvest. Subsequent harvests can be made at 1.5-2 months interval. Four to five cuttings can be taken in an year depending on the growth. A few plants per plot are left without cutting to set seeds. Ripe pods are to be harvested in the early morning to prevent loss of seeds by shattering during harvest.

Properties and Activity A blue dyestuff is obtained from the indigofera which does not exist ready formed, but is produced during fermentation from another agent existing in the plant, known as indocan. Indocan is yellow amorphous of a nauseous bitter taste with an acid reaction, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. An artificial product indigotine is manufactured chemically and used as a substitute. Indirubin is another component of the plant. The plant is deobstruent, alterative, antitoxic, antiasthmatic and antiepileptic. Aerial part is hypoglycaemic, CNS depressant and antitoxic. The leaves, flowers and tender shoots are considered to be cooling, demulcent and alterative. Leaf is antiinflammatory. Root and stem is laxative, expectorant, antitumourous, febrifuge, anticephalalgic, antidote for snake bite, anthelmintic and promotes growth of hair. Root is divertic. Indirubin is antineoplastic and has toxicity. Nili is antitoxic, purgative and laxative. Indigo is said to produce nausea and vomiting.

70

MALABAR NUT

Adhatoda beddomei

Acanthaceae

San:Vasaka, Vasa;

Mal:Chittadalotakam; Tam:Adutota;

Tel:Addasaramu

Hin:Adusa;

Importance Malabar nut or Adhatoda is a large evergreen glabrous perennial shrub, 1.2m in height. It is cultivated for medicinal uses, fencing, manure and as an ornamental plant in pots also. The shrub is the source of the drug vasaka well known in the indigenous systems of medicines for bronchitis. Vasaka leaves, flowers, fruits and roots are extensively used for treating common cold, cough, whooping cough, chronic bronchitis and asthma. It has sedative, expectorant, antispasmodic and anthelmintic actions. The juice of the leaves cures vomiting, thirst, fever, dermatosis, jaundice, phthisis, haematenesis and diseases due to the morbidity of kapha and pitta. The leaf juice is especially used in anaemia and haemorrhage, in traditional medicine. Flowers and leaves are considered efficacious against rheumatic painful swellings and form a good application to scabies and other skin complaints. Many ayurvedic medicines are traditionally prepared out of vasaka like vasarishtam, vasakasavam and vasahareethaki which are effective in various ailments of respiratory system. The drug VASA prepared from this plant forms an ingredient of preparations like Valiya rasnadi kasayam, Chyavanaprasam, Gulgulutiktakam ghrtam, etc. The alkaloid vasicinone isolated from the plant is an ingredient in certain allopathic cough syrups also.

Distribution. Vasaka is distributed all over India upto an altitude of 2000m. This plant grows on wasteland and sometimes it is cultivated also.

Botany Adhatoda beddomei C.B.Clarke Syn. Justicia beddomei (Clark) Bennet belongs to the family Acanthaceae. This is a large glabrous shrub. Leaves are opposite, ovate, lanceolate and short petioled upto 15cm long, 3.75cm broad, main nerves about 8 pairs. Flowers are white with large bracts, flower heads short, dense or condensed spikes. Fruits are capsules with a long solid base. Another plant Adhatoda zeylanica Medicus, syn. Adhatoda vasica Nees, Justicia adhatoda Linn. of the same genus is a very closely related plant which is most commonly equated with the drug VASA. This is seen growing wild almost throughout India while A. beddomei is seen more under cultivation. The latter is called Chittadalodakam because of its smaller stature, smaller leaves and flowers.

Agrotechnology Vasaka is seen almost in all types of climate. It prefers loamy soils with good drainage and high organic content. It can be grown well both in hilly and plain lands. Commercial propagation is by using 15-20cm long terminal cuttings. This is either grown in polybags first, then in the field or planted directly. The plant is cultivated as a pure crop or mixed with plantation crops. The land is ploughed repeatedly to a good tilth and the surface soil is broken upto a depth of 15cm and mixed with fertilizers. The beds are prepared with 1m breadth and 3-4m length. The cuttings are planted during April-May into the beds at a 71

spacing of 30x30cm. FYM is given at 5-10t/ha in the first year. Regular irrigation and weeding are necessary. Harvesting is at the end of second or third year. Roots are collected by digging the seedbeds. Stems are cut 15cm above the root. Stems and roots are usually dried and stored.

Properties and Activity Leaves yield essential oil and an alkaloid vasicine. Roots contain vasicinol and vasicinone. Roots also contain vasicoline, adhatodine, anisotine and vasicolinone. Several alkaloids like quinazoline and valicine are present in this plant. The plant is bitter, astringent, refrigerant, expectorant, diuretic, antispasmodic, febrifuge, depurative, styptic and tonic. Vasicine is bronchodilator, respiratory stimulant and hypotensive in action, uterine stimulant, uterotonic, abortifacient comparable with oxytocin and methyligin. Uterotonic action of vasicine is mediated through the release of prostaglandins.

72

COOMB TEAK

Gmelina arborea

Verbenaceae

San: Gumbhari; Hin:Gamari, Jugani-chukar; Mal: Kumizhu, Kumpil; Guj: Shewan; Pun:Gumbar; Mar: Shivanasal; Kan: Kummuda; Tam: Uni, Gumadi; Tel: Gummadi;

Importance Coomb teak, Candahar tree or Kashmeeri tree is a moderate sized, unarmed, deciduous tree which is a vital ingredient of the ”dasamula” (group of ten roots). The whole plant is medicinally very important. It promotes digestive power, improves memory, overcomes giddiness and is also used as an antidote for snake bite and scorpion sting. Roots are useful in hallucination, fever, dyspepsia, hyperdipsia, haemorrhoids, stomachalgia, heart diseases, nervous disorders, piles and burning sensation. Bark is used in fever and dyspepsia. Leaf paste is good for cephalagia and leaf juice is a good wash for foul ulcers and is also used in the treatment of gonorrhoea and cough. Flowers are recommended for leprosy, skin and blood diseases. The fruits are used for promoting the growth of hair and in anaemia, leprosy, ulcers, constipation, strangury, leucorrhoea, colpitis and lung disease. Wood is one of the best and most reliable timber of India. It is used for making furniture, planks, carriages, printing boxes, musical instruments, shafts, axles, picture frames, jute bobbins, calipers, ship buildings, artificial limbs and stethoscopes. In south India the bark of the tree is used by arrack manufacturers to regulate the fermentation of toddy. The plant is also grown in garden or avenues (Dey, 1988; Sivarajan and Indira, 1994).

Distribution The plant is found wild throughout India from the foot of Himalayas to Kerala and Anadamans, in moist, semideciduous and open forests upto an altitude of 1500 m. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka and Philippines.

Botany Gmelina arborea Roxb. Syn. Premna arborea Roth. belongs to Family Verbenaceae. It is an unarmed deciduous tree growing up to 20m height with whitish grey corky lenticellate bark, exfloliating in thin flakes. Branchlets and young parts are clothed with fine white mealy pubescence. Leaves are simple, opposite, broadly ovate, cordate, glandular, glabrous above when mature and fulvous-tomentose beneath. Flowers brownish yellow in terminal panicle. Calyx campanulate, pubescent outside and with 5 lobes. Corolla showy brownish yellow with short tube and oblique limbs. Stamens 4, didynamous and included. Ovary is 4 chambered with one ovule each; style slender ending in a bifid stigma. Fruits are fleshy ovoid drupes, orange yellow when ripe. Seeds 1 or 2, hard and oblong.

Agrotechnology Coomb teak is a sun loving plant. It does not tolerate drought. But it grows in light frost. Rainfall higher than 2000mm and loose soil are ideal. The best method of propagation is by seeds but rarely propagated vegitatevely by stem cuttings also. Seed formation occurs in May-June. Seeds are dried well before use. They are soaked in water for 12 hours before 73

sowing. Seed rate is 3kg/ha. Seeds are sown in nursery beds shortly before rains. Seeds germinate within one month. Seedlings are transplanted in the first rainy season when they are 7-10cm tall. Pits of size 50cm cube are made at a spacing of 3-4m and filled with sand, dried cowdung and surface soil, over which the seedlings are transplanted. 20kg organic manure is given once a year. Irrigation and weeding should be done on a regular basis. The common disease reported is sooty mould caused by Corticium salmonicolor which can be controlled by applying a suitable fungicide. The tree grows fast and may be ready for harvesting after 4 or 5 years. This plant is coppiced and traded. The roots are also used for medicinal purposes. The tree may stand up to 25 years.

Properties and Activity Roots and heart wood of Coomb teak are reported to contain gmelinol, hentriacontanol, n-octacosanol and -sitosterol. The roots contain sesquiterpenoid and apiosylskimmin, a coumarin characterised as umbelliferone-7-apiosyl glucoside and gmelofuran. The heart wood gives ceryl alcohol, cluytyl ferulate, lignans, arboreol, gmelonone, 6”-bromo isoarboreol, lignan hemiacetal and gummidiol. Leaves yield luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, hentriacontanol, -sitosterol, quercetogenin and other flavons. Fruits contain butyric acid, tartaric acid, and saccharine substances (Asolkar et al, 1992; Dey, 1988). The roots are acrid, bitter, tonic, stomachic, laxative, galactogogue, demulcent, antibilious, febrifuge and anthelmintic. Bark is bitter, hypoglycaemic, antiviral, anticephalalgic and tonic. The leaves are demulcent, antigonorrhoeic and bechic. Flowers are sweet, refrigerant, astringent and acrid. Fruits are acrid, refrigerant, diuretic, astringent, aphrodisiac, trichogenous, alterant and tonic (Warrier et al; 1995).

74

INDIAN BEECH

Pongamia pinnata

Papilionaceae

San: Karanj; Hin: Karanja, Dittouri; Ben: Dehar karanja; Mal: Ungu, Pongu; Guj, Mar, Pun: Karanj; Kan: Hongae; Tel: Kangu; Tam: Puggam; Ass: Karchaw; Ori: Koranjo

Importance Indian beech, Pongam oil tree or Hongay oil tree is a handsome flowering tree with drooping branches, having shining green leaves laden with lilac or pinkish white flowers. The whole plant and the seed oil are used in ayurvedic formulations as effective remedy for all skin diseases like scabies, eczema, leprosy and ulcers. The roots are good for cleaning teeth, strengthening gums and in gonorrhoea and scrofulous enlargement. The bark is useful in haemorhoids, beriberi, ophthalmopathy and vaginopathy. Leaves are good for flatulence, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, leprosy, gonorrhoea, cough, rheumatalgia, piles and oedema. Flowers are given in diabetes. Fruits overcomes urinary disease and piles. The seeds are used in inflammations, otalgia, lumbago, pectoral diseases, chronic fevers, hydrocele, haemorrhoids and anaemia. The seed oil is recommended for ophthalmia, haemorrhoids, herpes and lumbagoThe seed oil is also valued for its industrial uses. The seed cake is suggested as a cheap cattle feed. The plant enters into the composition of ayurvedic preparations like nagaradi tailam, varanadi kasayam, varanadi ghrtam and karanjadi churna. It is a host plant for the lac insect. It is grown as a shade tree. The wood is moderately hard and used as fuel and also for making agricultural implements and cartwheels.

Distribution The plant is distributed throughout India from the central or eastern Himalaya to Kanyakumari, especially along the banks of streams and rivers or beach forests and is often grown as an avenue tree. It is distributed in Sri Lanka, Burma, Malaya, Australia and Polynesia.

Botany Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre syn. P. glabra Vent., Derris indica (Lam.) Bennet, Cystisus pinnatus Lam. comes under family Papilionaceae. P. pinnata is a moderate sized, semi-evergreen tree growing upto 18m or more high, with a short bole, spreading crown and greyish green or brown bark. Leaves imparipinnate, alternate, leaflets 5-7, ovate and opposite. Flowers lilac or pinkish white and fragrant in axillary recemes. Calyx cup-shaped, shortly 4-5 toothed, corolla papilionaceous. Stamens 10 and monadelphous, ovary subsessile, 2-ovuled with incurved, glabrous style ending in a capitate stigma. Pod compressed, woody, indehiscent, yellowish grey when ripe varying in size and shape, elliptic to obliquely oblong, 4.0-7.5cm long and 1.7-3.2cm broad with a short curved beak. Seeds usually 1, elliptic or reniform, wrinkled with reddish brown, leathery testa.

Agrotechnology The plant comes up well in tropical areas with warm humid climate and well distributed rainfall. Though it grows in almost all types of soils, silty soils on river banks are 75

most ideal. It is tolerant to drought and salinity. The tree is used for afforestation, especially in watersheds in the drier parts of the country. It is propagated by seeds and vegetatively by rootsuckers. Seed setting is usually in November. Seeds are soaked in water for few hours before sowing. Raised seed beds of convenient size are prepared, well rotten cattle manure is applied at 1kg/m2 and seeds are uniformly broadcasted. The seeds are covered with a thin layer of sand and irrigated. One month old seedlings can be transplanted into polybags, which after one month can be planted in the field. Pits of size 50cm cube are dug at a spacing of 4-5m, filled with top soil and manure and planted. Organic manure are applied annually. Regular weeding and irrigation are required for initial establishment. The trees flower and set fruits in 5 years. The harvest season extends from November- June. Pods are collected and seeds are removed by hand. Seed, leaves, bark and root are used for medicinal purposes. Bark can be collected after 10 years. No serious pests and diseases are reported in this crop.

Properties and Activity The plant is rich in flavonoids and related compounds. Seeds and seed oil, flowers and stem bark yield karanjin, pongapin, pongaglabrone, kanugin, desmethoxykanugin and pinnatin. Seed and its oil also contain kanjone, isolonchocarpin, karanjachromene, isopongachromene, glabrin, glabrachalcone, glabrachromene, isopongaflavone, pongol, 2’methoxy-furano2”,3”:7,8-flavone and phospholipids. Stem-bark gives pongachromene, pongaflavone, tetra-O-methylfisetin, glabra I and II, lanceolatin B, gamatin, 5-methoxyfurano2”,3”:7,8-flavone, 5-methoxy-3’,4’-methelenedioxyfurano2”,3”:7,8-flavone and -sitosterol. Heartwood yields chromenochalcones and flavones. Flowers are reported to contain kanjone, gamatin, glabra saponin, kaempferol, -sitosterol, quercetin glycocides, pongaglabol, isopongaglabol, 6-methoxy isopongaglabol, lanceolatin B, 5-methoxy-3’,4’methelenedioxyfurano8,7:4”,5”-flavone, fisetin tetramethyl ether, isolonchocarpin, ovalichromene B, pongamol, ovalitenon, two triterpenes- cycloart-23-ene,3,25 diol and friedelin and a dipeptide aurantinamide acetate. Roots and leaves give kanugin, desmethoxykanugin and pinnatin. Roots also yield a flavonol methyl ether-tetra-O-methyl fisetin. The leaves contain triterpenoids, glabrachromenes I and II, 3’-methoxypongapin and 4’-methoxyfurano2”,3”:7,8-flavone also. The gum reported to yield polysaccharides (Thakur et al, 1989; Husain et al, 1992). Seeds, seed oil and leaves are carminative, antiseptic, anthelmintic and antirheumatic. Leaves are digestive, laxative, antidiarrhoeal, bechic, antigonorrheic and antileprotic. Seeds are haematinic, bitter and acrid. Seed oil is styptic and depurative. Karanjin is the principle responsible for the curative properties of the oil. Bark is sweet, anthelmintic and elexteric.

76

ECLIPTA

Eclipta prostrata

Asteraceae

San: Bhrngarajah, Tekarajah; Hin: Bhamgra, Mocakand, Babri; Ben: Kesutthe, Kesraj; Mal: Kannunni, Kayyonni, Kayyunnni; Tam: Kayyantakara, Kaikeri; Kan: Kadiggagaraga; Tel: Guntagalijeran; Arab: Kadim-el-bint

Importance Eclipta is one of the ten auspicious herbs that constitute the group dasapuspam which is considered to destroy the causative factors of all unhealthy and unpleasant features and bestow good health and prosperity. The members of this group cure wounds and ulcers as well as fever caused by the derangement of the tridosas - vata, pitta and kapha. It is used in hepatitis, spleen enlargements, chronic skin diseases, tetanus and elephantiasis. The leaf promotes hair growth and use as an antidote in scorpion sting. The root is used as an emetic, in scalding of urine, conjuctivitis and as an antiseptic to ulcers and wound in cattle. It is used to prevent abortion and miscarriage and also in cases of uterine pains after the delivery. The juice of the plant with honey is given to infants for expulsion of worms. For the relief in piles, fumigation with Eclipta is considered beneficial. A decoction of the leaves is used in uterine haemorrhage. The paste prepared by mincing fresh plants has got an antiinflammatory effect and may be applied on insect bites, stings, swellings and other skin diseases. In Ayurveda, it is mainly used in hair oil, while in Unani system, the juice is used in “Hab Miskeen Nawaz” along with aconite, triphala, Croton tiglium, Piper nigium, Piper longum, Zingiber officinale and minerals like mercury, sulphur, arsenic, borax, etc. for various types of pains in the body. It is also a constituent of “Roghan Amla Khas” for applying on the hair and of “Majun Murrawah-ul-arwah”.

Distribution This plant is widely distributed in the warm humid tropics with plenty of rainfall. It grows commonly in moist places as a weed all over plains of India.

Botany Eclipta prostrata (Linn) Linn. syn. E. alba Hassk. is an annual, erect or postrate herb, often rooting at nodes. Leaves are sessile, 2.5-7.5cm long with white appressed hairs. Floral heads are 6-8 mm in diameter, solitary and white. Fruit is an achene, compressed and narrowly winged. Sometimes, Wedelia calendulacea, which resembles Eclipta prostrata is used for the same purpose.

Properties and Activity The leaves contain stigmasterol, -terthienylmethanol, wedelolactone, dismethylwedelolactone and dismethylwedelolactone-7-glucoside. The roots give hentriacontanol and heptacosanol. The roots contain polyacetylene substituted thiophenes. The aerial part is reported to contain a phytosterol, -amyrin in the n-hexane extract and luteolin-7-glucoside, -glucoside of phytosterol, a glucoside of a triterpenic acid and wedelolactone in polar solvent extract. The polypeptides isolated from the plant yield cystine, glutamic acid, phenyl alanine, tyrosine and methionine on hydrolysis. Nicotine and nicotinic acid are reported to occur in this plant. The plant is anticatarrhal, febrifuge, antidontalgic, absorbent, antihepatic, CVS active, nematicidal, ovicidal and spasmolytic in activity. The alcoholic extract of entire plant has been reported to have antiviral activity against Ranikhet disease virus. Aqueous extract of the plant showed subjective improvement of vision in the case of refractive errors. The herbal drug Trefoli, containing extracts of the plant in combination with others, when administered to the patients of viral hepatitis, produced excellent results.

77

TERMINALIA

Terminalia spp.

Combretaceae

The genus Terminalia includes a large group of medicinally valuable trees. They belong to the family Combretaceae. The most important medicinal species of the genus Terminalia are the following. 1) T. arjuna (Roxb.ex DC) Wight & Arn. San: Arjunah, Kakubhah; Hin: Arjun, Kahu, Kahua; Mal: Marutu, Nirmarutu, Venmarutu, Attumarutu, Pulamatti; Tam: Attumarutu, Nirmarutu, Vellaimarutu, Marutu; Kan: Maddi. It is a large evergreen tree commonly found in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Peninsular and India. It has buttressed trunk and spreading crown with drooping branches. Bark is smooth, grey outside and flesh coloured inside, flaking off in large flat pieces. Leaves are simple, sub-opposite, oblong or elliptic, coriaceous, crenulate, pale dull green above, pale brown beneath, often unequal sided, nerves 10-15 pairs and reticulate. Flowers are white, arranged in panicles of spikes with linear bracteoles. Fruits are ovoid or oblong with 5-7 short, hard angles or wings, the lines on the wings oblique and curving upward (Warrier et al 1996). The bark is useful in fractures, ulcers, urethrorrhoea, leucorrhoea, diabetes, vitiated conditions of pitta, anaemia, cardiopathy, fatigue, asthma, bronchitis, tumours, internal and external haemorrhages, cirrhosis of the lever and hypertension. It is used in fractures and the powdered bark is taken with milk. The bark powder is diuretic and has a general tonic effect in cases of cirrhosis of liver. The bark has been considered by the ayurvedic physicians as well as by modern practitioners as a cardiac tonic. It is given as a decoction with milk (NRF, 1998). In Ayurveda, “Arjunaghrita” and “Arjunarishta” are two important cardiotonic preparations of this drug. Fruits contain flavanones - arjunone and 5,7,2’, 4’ - tetramethoxy flavone and a chalcone - cerasidin. Other constituents are -sitosterol, friedelin, methyloleanolate, gallic acid, ellagic acid and arjunic acid. Bark gave a triterpene arjungenin, triterpene glucosides I, II and III. Stem bark gave flavones - baicalein and arjunolone characterised as 6,4’ dihydraxy - 7-methoxy flavone. Stem bark yields oxalic acid and tannins besides complex glycosides (Bhatra et al, 1980). Bark is alexertic, styptic, antidysenteric, astringent, antiasthmatic, febrifuge, expectorant, cardiotonic aphrodisiac and diuretic. Fruit is deobstruent. Stem-bark is CVS and CNS active, diuretic and abortifacient. Aerial part is CNS depressant and semen coagulant. 2) T. alata Heyne ex Roth. Syn. T. tomentosa (Roxb. Ex. Dc.) W & A. San: Dharaphala, Saradru, Sajada; Hin. Ain; Ben: Asan, Paishal; Mal: Tehmbara; Tam: Karramarda, Karu Murutha, Marudam, Pudavam. This tree is distributed in Himalaya from Kangra eastwords to Goalpara in Assam and southwards throughout the Peninsular India, upto 1200 m. The bark of the tree is widely used in ulcers, fractures, bronchitis and diarrhoea. Hydrolysis of the gum gives oligosaccharides, disaccharides and monosaccharides. Leaves and fruits give -sitosterol. Bark is diuretic, antihaemorrhagic, styptic, cardiotonic and semen coagulant. 3) T. bellirica (Craertn.) Roxb. San: Aksha, Anilaghanaka, Baheduka, Harya, Kalinda; Hin: Bulla, Sagona; Ben: Bahera, Baheri; Tam: Akkam, Kalanduri, Tani; Tel: Bhutavasamu Tadi, Tandra, Vibhutakamu. Belliric Myrobalan is distributed throughout India, upto 900 m. Its bark is used in anaemia and leucoderma. The fruit is used in bronchitis, strangury, sore throat, diseases of eye, nose, heart and bladder, hoarseness and piles. It forms an important constituent of the ayurvedic drug ‘triphala’. Furits contain -sitosterol, gallic and ellagic acids, ethyl gallate, galloyl glucose, chebulagic acid and a cardiac glucoside bellaricanin. Alcoholic extract of 78

the fruit possesses bile-stimulating activity. Alcoholic extract, 30 mg/kg does not affect blood pressure and respiration, but a higher dose of 60 mg/kg produces a fall in blood pressure. Furit has anticancerous and flower has spermicidal activity. Bark is mild diuretic. Fruit is astringent, antidropsical, antileprotic, antiinflammatory, antidiarrhoeal, antibilious, stomachic, antiasthmatic, tonic, anticephalgic, bechic, anthelmintic and attenuant. Kernel is narcotic. Semi-ripe fruit is purgative. Gum is demulcent (Husain et al, 1992) 4) T. bialata steud. White Chugalam or silver grey wood is a common tree of Andaman Islands. Its bark is used as a cardiac stimulant. 5) T. Catappa Linn. San: Grahadruma; Hin: Badam; Ben: Bangla Badam: Tam: Natuvdom, Vadhamkottai; Tel: Vedam, Voda Movettilla; Mar: Jangli Badama, Nat Badam. Indian Almond or Tropical Almond is a popular tree cultivated throughout the warmer parts of India including Andaman Islands and other adjacent island. Oil from the kernel is a substitute for almond oil. The leaf is used in scabies and colic. Husk and endocarp contain tannins and pentosans. Oil from kernel contains oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Heart wood and stem bark contains -sitosterol and its palmitate. Heartwood in addition contains terminolic acid and triterpenic methyl esters. The aerial part of the plant is diuretic. The bark is astringent, mild diuretic, cardiotonic and antidysenteric. Leaf is sudorific, antirheumatic, antileprotic and anticephalalgic. 6) T. Coriacea (Roxb.) syn. T. tomentosa (Roxb. ex. DC.) W. & A. var.

coriacea (Roxb.) C. B. Clarke Tam: Anaimikkuvam, Sadagam; Kan: Banapu; Tel: Tani. Leathery Murdah is a tree commonly used as a cardiac stimulant. It is widely distributed in the drier and warmer parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu upto 1350 m and in Central India. Its bark is mainly used as a cardiac stimulant and in atonic diarrhoea and callous ulcer. It is also CVS active. 7) T. myriocarpa Heurck. & Muell. Arg. Ben: Panisaj; Ass: Hollock, Jhalna. Hollock is a tree of the Himalayas widely distributed from Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh and in Assam at 1000 m. The bark is cardiac stimulant and mild diuretic. Bark give -sitosterol, fructose and 4,4’,5,5’,6,6’ - hexadydroxy diphenic acid dilactone. Bark also contains tannis - ellagic, gallic, chebulinic and chebulagic acids. 8) T. Pallida Brandis. Tam: Vellai Kadukkay; Tel: Tella Karaka, Velama Karka. The plant is distributed throughout south India, upto 600m. Its bark is a mild diuretic. 9) T. Paniculata Roth. Mal: Marutu, Pe Marutu, Ven Marutu; Tam: Pei Kadukai, Ven Maruthu, Ilai Kadukkay, Marudu, Pullatti; Tel: Nimiri, Pulamaddi, Putamanu, Pulanallamanu; Kan: Maruva, Matti. Flowering Murdah is a tree which is widely used in opium poisoning. It is distributed in the Western and Eastern Ghats, upto 1200m. The bark is used in parotitis and flowers in opium poisioning. Heart wood give 3, 3’-0-di-methylellagic acid and 3,4,3’0trimethyl flavellagic acid, -sitosterol, an uncharacterized triterpene carboxylic acid; a

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glycoside - 3,3’ di-0 - methyl ellagic acid - 4 - monoglucoside and 0 - penta methyl flavellogic acid. The stem bark is anticancerous, diuretic, cardiotonic CVS active and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. Flower is anticholerin (Husain et al, 1992) 10) Terminalia chebula Retz. Syn. Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertner Eng: Chebulic myrobalan; San, Ben: Haritaki; Hindi:Harara, Harir, Har; Mal:Kadukka; Ass:Hilikha; Kan:Alale; Mar:Habra,Hirada; Ori:Harida; Guj:Hirdo; Pun:Helela; Tam:Amagola; Tel:Karaka Chebulic myrobalan is a medium deciduous tree, the fruit of which is a common constituent of “Triphala” capable of imparting youthful vitality and receptivity of mind and sense. It is a major constituent in the ayurvedic preparations like Abhayarishta, Abhaya modak, Haritaki khand, Triphaladi churnam and Agastya rasayanam. In allopathy it is used in astringent ointments. In unani system, it is used as a blood purifier. The pulp of the fruit is given in piles, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, costiveness, flatulence, asthma, urinary disorders, vomiting, hiccup, intestinal worms, ascites and enlarged spleen and liver. Powder of the fruit is used in chronic ulcers and wounds, carious teeth and bleeding ulceration of the gums. The bark is a good cardiac tonic. The fruit is valuable for its tannins and dyes. The wood is used for building purposes, agricultural implements, plywood and match box industries. It is also grown as a shade tree. The plant is found throughout India chiefly in deciduous forests, on dry slopes upto 900m especially in Bengal, Tamil Nadu, West coast and Western Ghats. The plant is also reported in Sri Lanka, Nepal and Burma. Terminalia chebula Retz. syn. Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertner comes under family Combretaceae. It is a medium sized deciduous tree with a cylindrical bole, rounded crown, spreading branches with dark brown bark and brownish gray heartwood. Leaves are simple, alternate or subopposite, ovate or elliptic ovate with short petioles bearing 2 glands below the blades. Flowers pale yellow or white in 4-10cm long axillary spikes. Calyx tube hairy pale yellow and 5 lobed; no petals. Stamens consist of 10 filaments subulate, anthers small; ovary inferior, 1-celled with 2-3 pendulous ovule. Fruit is a drupe, ovoid glossy, glabrous, faintly angled and yellow to orange brown in colour. Seeds are hard and pale yellow. Kernel oil of Chebulic myrobalan contains 6 fatty acids viz. Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic and behenic acid. The fruits contain chebulinic acid, tannic acid, gallic acid, chebulin and tannin. Leaves contain terpenes and saponins and -sitosterol is present in the bark (Beri, 1970; Khalique and Nizamuddin, 1972; Miglani and Chawla, 1974). Fruits are astringent, purgative, tonic, carminative, alternative and antispasmodic. Flowers and fruits are antiviral and hypoglycaemic. Wood is oxytocic and hypothermic (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology Terminalia species are, in general, subtropical trees. Young plants prefer shade while the matured plants tolerate light frost and drought. It grows well in hilly areas. This is propagated by seeds. Natural multiplication happens rarely due to the poor seeds germination. Seeds soaked in water for 48 hours before sowing in seedbeds which should be covered with straw after sowing. It is watered immediately. Usually it takes 3-5 months to germinate. It can be transferred to polybags at two-leaf stage. One-year-old seedlings are ready for transplanting. For transplanting, pits are made of 50cm cube at a spacing of 4m. Organic manure, added regularly, promotes growth. Irrigation is required during first year. Weeds should be removed regularly. This plant grows slowly. It fruits within 6-7 years. This is continued for many years. It is coppiced well. Fruits are collected immediately after falling down or covered with soil to protect it from pests. Fruits dried well in sun and used or stored. The hard seed coat is removed before sowing.

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COLEUS

Coleus spp.

Lamiaceae

The genus Coleus of the family Lamiaceae (Labiatae) comprises a number of herbaceous medicinal plants which are particularly employed in home remedies for various ailments. Three species are most popular and commonly cultivated. They are Coleus aromaticus, C. vettiveroides and C. forkoshlii.

1. Coleus aromaticus Benth. syn. C. amboinicus Lour., Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Eng: Country borage, Indian borage; San: Karpuravalli, Sugandhavalakam; Hin: Patharchur; Ben: Paterchur; Mal: Panikkurkka, kannikkurkka; Tam: Karpuravalli; Kan: karpurahalli; Tel: Sugandhavalkam. It is found through out the tropics and cultivated in homestead gardens. It is a large succulent aromatic perennial herb with hispidly villous or tomentose fleshy stem. Leaves are simple, opposite, broadly ovate, crenate and fleshy. Flowers are pale purplish in dense whorls at distant intervals in a long slender raceme. Fruits are orbicular or ovoid nutlets. The leaves are useful in cephalagia, otalgia, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, cholera, halitosis, convulsions, epilepsy, cough, asthma, hiccough, bronchitis, strangury, hepatopathy and malarial fever (Warrier et al,1995).

2. Coleus vettiveroides K.C. Jacob, syn. Plectranthus vettiveroides (Jacob) Singh & Sharma. San: Valakam, Hriberam; Hin: Valak; Mal: Iruveli; Tam: Karuver; Tel: Karuveru, It is seen in tropical countries and cultivated in gardens. It is a small profusely branched, succulent aromatic herb with quadrangular stems and branches and deep straw coloured aromatic roots. Leaves are glandular hairy, broadly ovate with dentate margins and prominent veins on the bark. Blue flowers are borne on terminal racemes. Fruits are nutlets. The whole plant is useful in hyperdipsia, vitiated conditions of pitta, burning sensation, strangury, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, ulcers and as hair tonic.

3. Coleus forskohlii Briq. syn. C. barbatus Benth. Hin: Garmai Kan: Maganiberu, Makandiberu Guj: Maimul It is a perennial aromatic herb grown under tropical to temperate conditions for its carrot-like tubers which are used as condiments in the preparation of pickles. Its tuberous roots are an exclusive source of a diterpenoid forskolin which has the unique property of activating almost all hormone sensitive adenylate cyclase enzymes in a biological system. It is useful in the treatment of congestive heart failure, glaucoma, asthma, cancer and in preventing immature greying of hair (Hegde,1997).

Agrotechnology The Coleus group of plants grows in tropical to subtropical situations and in warm temperate climatic zone on mountains of India, Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Africa. It comes up well on the sun exposed dry hill slopes from 300m to 1800m altitude. A well drained medium fertile soil is suitable for its cultivation. it is propagated vegetatively through stem and root cuttings. Vine cuttings to a length of 10-15cm from the top portion are most ideal for planting. The land is ploughed or dug to a depth of 15-20cm and ridges are formed 30cm apart. Vine cuttings are planted on the ridges at 30cm spacing after incorporating basal manure. 10t of FYM and NPK at 50:50:50kg/ha are incorporated into the soil. Top dressing of N and K is also suggested for improved yields. Weeding and earthing up at 45 days after planting along with topdressing is highly beneficial. Bacterial wilt and root knot nematode are reported in the crop. Drenching the soil with fungicide, deep ploughing in the summer, burning of crop residues and crop rotation are helpful to tide over the disease and pest problem. The crop can be harvested after 5-6 months.

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Properties and Activity The medicinal property of Coleus amboinicus is attributed to codeine, carvacrol, flavones, aromatic acids and tannins present in the plant. The essential oil from the plant contains carvacrol, ethyl salicylate, thymol, eugenol and chavicol. Leaves also contain cirsimaritin, -sitosterol--D-glucoside and oxalacetic acid. Leaves are bitter, acrid, thermogenic, aromatic, anodyne, appetising, digestive, carminative, stomachic, anthelmintic, constipating, deodorant, expectorant, diuretic and liver tonic. Coleus vettiveroides is bitter, cooling, diuretic, trichogenous and antipyretic. Coleus forskohlii roots are rich in diterpenoids like forskolin, coleonols, coleons, barbatusin, cyclobutatusin, coleosol, coleol, coleonone, deoxycoleonol, 7-deacetylforskolin and 6-acetyl-7-deacetylforskolin. Its root is spasmolytic, CNS active, hypothermic and diuretic. Forskolin is bronchodialative and hypotensive (Hussain et al,1992). Forskolin is also useful in preventing the clotting of blood platelets, in reducing intraocular pressure in glaucoma and as an aid to nerve regeneration following trauma (Sharma, 1998)

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TINOSPORA

Tinospora cordifolia

Menispermaceae

San: Amrita, Guduchi; Hin, Ben: Giloe; Mal: Amritu, Chittamritu; Kan: Amritaballi; Tel: Tivantika, Tippatige; Pun: Batindu

Tam: Amridavalli Ori: Gulochi

Importance Tinospora is a common climbing shrub which is used in medicine, usually in the fresh state, though it is commercially available in the dried state. It is probably the most useful preparation acting as a tonic and aphrodisiac. As a tonic it is best given in infusion with or without milk. It is a popular remedy for snake-bite and leprosy. It is generally prescribed in general debility, diabetes, fever, jaundice, skin diseases, rheumatism, urinary diseases, dyspepsia, gout, gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea. It is a constituent of several preparations like guduchayado churna, gududyadi kwath, guduchilouha, amritarista, sanjivanivati, guduchi taila, amiritastak kwath, etc. The juice mixed with the pulp of long pepper and honey is a house hold remedy for gonorrhoea. Several oils for external applications are prepared with amrita and applied to skin diseases, rheumatic affections and other nervous complaints. A small quantity of bruised stem soaked for three hours in half a litre of water and strained combined with ammonium acetate is administered in intermittent and milder forms of fevers. It is rendered more agreeable with cinnamon, cloves and other aromatics. (Viswanathan, 1997).

Distribution The plant is widely seen in tropical countries like India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and in Andaman Islands. It is mostly found trailing on forest trees, fences and hedges along the boundaries.

Botany Tinospora cordifolia (Willd) Miers ex Hk. f & Thoms. syn. Menispermum cordifolium Willd, Cocculus cordifolius (Willd) DC. belongs to the family Menispermaceae. It is a climbing shrub with rough corky bark. Leaves are glabrous, cordate 5-10cm broad, acute or accuminate. The plant is dioecious. Male flowers are in fascicles; sepals oval; petals half the length of sepals. Female flowers are usually solitary, having ovary on the fleshy receptacle. Fruits are red when ripe.

Agrotechnology Giloe requires a warm humid tropical climate. It thrives well in deep fertile soils which are rich in organic matter. It is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings. About 1015cm long stem cuttings having at least 2 nodes are planted in the field or polybags. Treatment of cut ends with hormones gives better results. The usual planting time is with the onset of monsoon in May-June. Usually it is planted along boundaries or nearby tall trees and allowed to trail on the trees or hedges and hence regular spacing is not followed. While planting, adequate amounts of organic manure are applied. Once the plant is established no much management is needed. The stem is the most economic part. Harvesting can be commenced after one year and usually partial harvesting is followed depending on the necessity. The stem and root should be collected in hot season when the concentration of the bitter principle is the highest. A full grown well ramified plant may give 2-3kg vines, which are cut into smaller pieces and traded either fresh or after drying.

Properties and Activity The plant contains cordifol, tinosporidine, tinosporide, perberilin, heptacosanol, sitosterol, cordifolone, tinosporon, tinosporic acid, tinosporol, cordifolide, tinosporine, magnoflorine and tembetarine (Husain et al,1992). The plant is antigonorrhoric, stomachic, antispasmodic, antiinflammatory, stimulant, diuretic, emetic, antidiabetic, aphrodisiac, antiperiodic, antileprotic antirheumantic and tonic. The root is an emetic in large doses. The tincture and extract are alterative and tonic and in a less degree antiperiodic and diuretic. (Dey,1980).

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DESMODIUM

Desmodium gangeticum

Fabaceae

San: Anshumati, Salaparni; Hin, Ben: Salpani; Mal: Orila; Tam:Pulladi; Tel: Gitanaram Kan: Murelehonne; Mar: Darh; Guj: Salwan; Ori: Salaparni Pun: Shalpurhi

Importance Desmodium is a small shrub which is the chief of the ten ingredients in the Dasamula kwatha of Hindu medicine. Roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata, anorexia, dyspepsia, haemorrhoids, dysentery, strangury, fever, gout, inflammations, cough, asthma, bronchitis, cardiopathy and debility. The unani preparation “Arq dashmul” contains these roots. It is considered a curative for leucorrhoea and for pains due to cold (Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution The plant is widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics. It grows wild in the forests of India up to 1500m. It is also cultivated in the plains and in the lower Himalayas.

Botany Desmodium gangeticum (Linn.) DC. syn. Hedysarum gangeticum Linn., Desmodium gangeticum var. maculatum (Linn.) Baker., belongs to the family Fabaceae (Papilionaceae). It is an erect diffusely branched undershrub, 90-120cm in height with a short woody stem and numerous prostrate branches provided with soft grey hairs. Leaves are unifoliate, ovatelanceolate, membranceous and mottled with grey patches. Flowers are white, purple or lilac in elongate lax, terminal or axillary racemes. Fruits are moniliform, 6-8 jointed, glabrescent pods, joints of pods separately pubescent with hooked hairs, joint separating when ripe into indehiscent one seeded segments. Seeds are compressed and reniform.

Agrotechnology Desmodium can grow in a variety of climate and soils. However, it prefers tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. Although it can grow on all types of soils, waterlogged and highly alkaline soils are not suitable. Light sandy loam is preferred for commercial cultivation. It is propagated through seeds. Seeds can be planted directly in the field or seedlings raised on the nursery beds and transplanted. Transplanting always gives better results in commercial cultivation, as it gives assured crop stand. Planting is done at a spacing of 40x20cm on flat beds or ridges. Organic manures are applied at the time of land preparation and thoroughly mixed with the soil. A little quantity of phosphatic and nitrogenous fertilizers are also applied for better crop growth. The inter-row spaces between plants, both in the field and nursery should be kept free from weeds by frequent weeding and hoeing as the plant suffers from weed competition, especially during early stages of growth. Manual hand weeding is usually done. Irrigation of seedlings just after planting is good for crop establishment. Although it can be cultivated as a rainfed crop under humid tropical conditions, irrigation every month is beneficial during summer. The root is the economic part and harvesting can be commenced after 8-9 months. About 500- 700kg roots can be harvested from a hectare of land per year.

Properties and Activity The root contains gangetin, gangetinin, desmodin, N,N-dimethyl tryptamine, hypaphorine, hordenine, candicine, N-methyl tyramine and -phenyl ethyl amine. The total alkaloid fraction showed hypotensive activity. The root is bitter, antiinflammatory, analgesic, aphrodisiac, constipating, diuretic, cardiotonic, expectorant, astringent, antidiarrhoeal, carminative, antiemetic, febrifuge and anti-catarrhal (Thakur et al, 1989).

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GARLIC

Allium sativum

Liliaceae

San: Lasunah, Rasonah; Hin:Lasun, Lahasun; Ben: Lashan; Mal: Vellulli; Kan: Belluli; Tam: Vellaipuntu; Mar: Lasunas; Ass: Naharu; Tel:Vellulli, Tella-gadda; Guj: Lasan

Importance Garlic is one of the important bulb crops used as a spice or condiment with medicinal value throughout the world. It possesses high nutritive value. Its preparations are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, cough, whooping cough, bronchitis, asthma, fever, facial paralysis, flatulence, colic, constipation, atonic dyspepsia, helminthiasis, duodenal ulcers, pulmonary and laryngeal tuberculosis, opthalmopathy, cardiopathy, fatigue, leucoderma, leprosy, hysteria, haemorrhoids, sciatica, otalgia, lumbago, swellings, splenopathy, hepatopathy, pneumonopathy, anthralgia, sore eyes, ear ache and dental caries (Kumar et al, 1997).

Distribution Garlic is a native of Southern Europe and it is cultivated all over the world.. It is grown throughout India; Gujarat and Orissa being the leading states.

Botany The genus Allium of Liliaceae family comprises a number of species. The important ones are the following: A. sativum Linn. syn. A. porrum Linn. A. cepa Linn. A. ampeloprasum Linn. A. ascalonicum Linn. A. leptophyllum Wall. A. macleanii Baker. A. schoenoprasum Linn. A. tuberosum Roxb. Allium sativum is a scapigerous foetid perennial medicinal herb with underground compound bulbs covered over by outer white thin scales and with simple smooth, round stem, surrounded at the bottom by tubular leaf sheath. The leaves are simple, long, flat and linear. The flowers are small and white arranged in rounded umbels mixed with small bulbils. The entire umbel is enclosed in a tear-drop-shaped membranous spathe. Flowers are usually sterile (Warrier et al, 1993).

Agrotechnology Garlic can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. It prefers moderate temperature in summer as well as in winter. Short days are very favourable for the formation of bulbs. Garlic requires well drained loamy soils rich in humus, with fairly good content of potash. Garlic is propagated by cloves or bulblets. In the hills, sowing is done in April and May. Types with bold and compact cloves and thick white covering sheath are preferred for planting. Ootty-1 garlic is an improved variety by clonal selection released from TNAU, Coimbatore. Garlic may be broadcast, planted in furrows or dibbled at the rate of 150-200kg cloves/ha. In furrow planting, cloves are dropped 7.5-10cm apart in furrows 15cm deep and covered lightly with loose soil. Cloves may be dibbled 5 to 7.5cm deep and 7.5cm apart in rows which are 15cm apart with their growing end upwards and then covered with loose soil. A basal dose of 60kg N and 50kg each of P2O5 and K2O are applied along with 25t/ha of FYM. 60kg N is given as topdressing 45 days after planting. First irrigation is given immediately after sowing and subsequent irrigations are given at 10-15 days interval depending upon the soil moisture availability. The last irrigation should be given 2-3 days before harvesting to facilitate easy harvest and minimum damage to bulbs. First weeding and hoeing is to be done at one month after sowing followed by a second weeding one month after first interculture. Hoeing at about two and a half months from sowing loosens the soil and helps in setting of bigger and well-filled bulbs. Garlic is attacked by Thrips 85

tabacii which causes withering of leaves. Application of methyl demeton 25EC or dimethoate 30EC at 1ml/l will check the pest incidence. Leaf spot caused by Alternaria solanii can be controlled by spraying Dithane M.45 at fortnightly intervals at 2.5g/l of water. Garlic is harvested when the tops turn yellowish or brownish and show signs of drying up. The plants are uprooted, tied into small bundles and kept in shade for 2-3 days for curing. Average yield of garlic is 6-8t/ha. ( Kumar et al, 1997.)

Properties and activity Garlic bulb is reported to contain volatile oil, alliin ( S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide), Smethyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide and allinase. It is rich in vitamins like thiamine, riboflavine and niacin. Volatile oil contains allicin (diallyl thiosulphinate), an active odour principle of garlic. Other major compounds present are diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide, allyl methyl trisulphide and allyl methyl disulphide (Husain et al., 1992). Garlic bulb is antirheumatic, stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, diuretic, antispasmodic, astringent, antiparalytic, antileprotic, aperient, febrifuge, carminative, stomachic, alterative and emmenagogue. The essential oil is hypocholestrolemic, hypotensive, antitumour and antidiabetic. Diallyl disulphide and diallyl trisulphide from essential oil have larvicidal action. Bulbs also have anti-bacterial, and anti-fungal activity.

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POMEGRANATE

Punica granatum

San: Dadimah; Hin: Anar, Dhalim; Ben: Dalim; Mal: Urumampazham, Matalam, Talimatalam, Matalanarakam; Tel: Dadima; Mar: Dalimba; Guj: Dadam; Ass: Dalin

Punicaceae Tam: Madalai, Madalam; Kan :Dalimbe;

Importance Pomegranate has long been esteemed as food and medicine and as a diet in convalescence after diarrhoea. The rind of the fruit is highly effective in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, dyspepsia, colitis, piles and uterine disorders. The powdered drug boiled with buttermilk is an efficacious remedy for infantile diarrohoea. The root and stem bark are good for tapeworm and for strengthening the gums. The flowers are useful in vomiting, vitiated conditions of pitta, ophthalmodynia, ulcers, pharyngodynia and hydrocele. An extract of the flowers is very specific for epistaxis. The fruits are useful in anaemia, hyperdipsia, pharyngodynia, ophthalmodynia, pectoral diseases, splenopathy, bronchitis and otalgia. The fruit rind is good for dysentery, diarrhoea and gastralgia. Seeds are good for scabies, hepatopathy and splenopathy. The important preparations using the drug are Dadimadighrtam, Dadimastaka churnam, Hinguvacadi churnam, Hingvadi gulika, etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994, Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution Pomegranate is a native of Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. It is found growing wild in the warm valleys and outer hills of the Himalaya between 900m and 1800m altitude. It is cultivated throughout India, the largest area being in Maharastra.

Botany Punica granatum Linn. belongs to the family Punicaceace. It is a large deciduous shrub up to 10m in height with smooth dark grey bark and often spinescent branchlets. Leaves are opposite, glabrous, minutely pellucid-punctuate, shining above and bright green beneath. Flowers are scarlet red or sometime yellow, mostly solitary, sometimes 2-4 held together. Stamens are numerous and inserted on the calyx below the petals at various levels. Fruits are globose, crowned by the persistent calyx. Rind is coriaceous and woody, interior septate with membraneous walls containing numerous seeds. Seeds are angular with red, pink or whitish, fleshy testa (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology Pomegranate is of deciduous nature in areas where winters are cold, but on the plains it is evergreen. A hot dry summer aids in the production of best fruits. Plants are grown from seeds as well as cuttings. Mature wood pieces cut into lengths of about 30cm are planted for rooting. The rooted plants are planted 4.5-6m apart. When planted close, they form a hedge which also yields fruits. Normal cultivation and irrigation practices are satisfactory for the pomegranate. An application of 30-45kg of FYM annually to each tree helps to produce superior quality fruits. The pomegranate may be trained as a tree with a single stem for 30-45cm or as a bush with 3 or 4 main stems. In either case suckers arising from the roots and similar growths from the trunk and main branches are removed once a year. Shortening of long slender branches and occasional thinning of branches should be done. The fruit has a tough rind and hence transportation loss is minimum (ICAR, 1966).

Properties and Activity Pomegranate fruit rind gives an ellagitannin named granatin B, punicalagin, punicalin and ellagic acid. Bark contains the alkaloids such as iso-pelletierine, pseudopelletierine, methyl isopelletierine, methyl pelletierine, pelletierine as well as isoquercetin, friedelin, D-mannitol and estrone. Flowers give pelargonidin-3, 5-diglucoside apart from sitosterol, ursolic acid, maslinic acid, asiatic acid, sitosterol--D-glucoside and gallic acid. Seeds give malvidin pentose glycoside. Rind gives pentose glycosides of malvidin and pentunidin. Fluoride, calcium, magnesium, vitamin C and phosphate are also reported from fruits. Leaves give elligatannins-granatins A and B and punicafolin. 87

Rind of fruit is astringent, fruit is laxative. Bark of stem and root is anthelmintic, and febrifuge. Rind of fruit and bark of stem and root is antidiarrhoeal. Pericarp possesses antifertility effect. Fixed oil from seeds are antibacterial. Bark, fruit pulp, flower and leaf are antifungal. Aerial part is CNS depressant, diuretic and hypothermic. The flower buds of pomegranate in combination with other plants showed excellent response to the patients of Giardiasis (Mayer et al, 1977; Singhal et al, 1983).

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CURRY LEAF San: Kalasakh, Kaidaryah Mal: Kariveppu, Karuveppu Tel: Karivepaku

Murraya Koenigii Hin: Mithinim, Katnim Tam: Kariveppilai, Karuveppu Ass: Narasingha, Bishahari

Rutaceae Ben: Barsunga Kan: Kari Baeva

Importance Curry leaf, a plant of homestead gardens has gained importance as a commercial crop and is cultivated for its culinary and medicinal value. The plant is highly esteemed for its leaves which promote appetite and digestion and destroy pathogenic organisms. It is reported to be useful in emaciation, skin diseases, hemopathy, worm troubles, neurosis and poisons. They are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, hyperdipna, colic, flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting, inflammations and foul ulcers. “Kaidaryah” drug is prepared using this plant which improves voice, stimulates digestion and destroys concocted poisons in the system. The important preparations using the drug are Kalasadi kasayam, Pamantaka tailam, Jatyadi tailam, Jatyadi ghrtam, etc (Sivarajan et al,1994).

Distribution Curry leaf is seen in the foot of the Himalaya and Bashahi eastwards to Sikkim and Peninsular India, upto 1700m. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Burma, Indo-China, South China and Hainan. Commercial cultivation in India is limited to Tamil Nadu and Karnataka states.

Botany The genus Murraya of the family Rutaceae includes the following species: M. Koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. syn. Bergera koenigii Linn. M. Exotica Linn. syn. M. paniculata (Linn.) Jack. Murraya koenigii is a small aromatic tree with dark grey bark and closely crowded spreading dark green foliage. Leaves are imparipinnate and alternate. Leaflets are alternate, obliquely ovate or somewhat rhomboid, gland dotted and strongly aromatic. Flowers are white, arranged in much branched terminal corymbose cymes and fragrant. Fruits are subglobose or ellipsoid berries, purplish black when ripe and 2-seeded (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology Curry leaf tree does not choose a specific climate and can come up even in dry climate too. In places where minimum temperature goes below 13C, the growth of the shoot will be slightly affected. It comes up well in light textured red soils. DWD-1 and DWD-2 are two improved varieties released from UAS, Dharwad. Curry leaf is propagated by seed. Main field is to be ploughed repeatedly. A spacing of 90-120cm is followed on either side. Pits of size 30cm3 are dug out one month before planting and filled with top soil mixed with well decomposed FYM at the time of planting. Healthy seedlings are planted in the centre of the pits. Then long furrows are formed connecting all the pits to facilitate easy irrigation. The seedlings are irrigated once in 5-7 days upto 3 years and once in 15 days afterwards. The field should be kept free from weeds. Plants may be trained and pruned to maintain a bush of 1m in height. For better growth and yield, each plant is fertilised with 20kg of FYM besides 150:25:50g of N, P2O5, K2O/ year. Attack of aphids in the vegetative stage can be controlled by spraying of dimethoate at 2ml/l of water. Leaves from such sprayed plants should be harvested only after 10 days. Spraying carbendazim at 1g/l can take care of leaf spot diseases. The crop comes to first harvest at the end of first year. The yield of leaves account to 400kg/ha at the end of first year, 2000 to 2200kg/ha in the second and third year harvested at an interval of four months and 2500kg/ha in the fourth year harvested at three months interval. From fifth year onwards it is harvested at 2.5-3 months interval giving an yield of 3500-5000kg/ha (Kumar et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity All parts of the plant, especially the leaves are rich in carbazole alkaloids. These include members with (i) C13 - skeleton -murrayanin, mukoeic acid, mukonine and 89

mukonidine; (ii) C18 - skeleton including gerinimbine, koenimbine, murrayacine, koenigine and koenigicine (koenidine); and (iii) C23- skeleton containing mahanimbine, mahanimbicine, iso-mahanimbicine, mahanine, mahanimbinine, murrayayazoline, murrayazolinine, murrayazolidine, cyclomahanimbine and bicyclomahanimbicine. Other carbazole bases include mukoline, mukolidine (C13 group, from roots), mukonicine (C18 from leaves), the biogenetically significant mukonal (C13, stem-bark), mahanimboline (C23, root-bark), iso-murrayazoline (C23, stem-bark). The leaves gave a coumarin glucoside, scopolin also. Essential oil from leaves contained -caryophylline, -gurjunene, -elemene, -phellandrene, -thujene as major constituents. The roots, bark and leaves are bitter, acrid, astringent, cooling, aromatic, demulcent, depurative, anthelmintic, febrifuge, stomachic, appetising, carminative, antiinflammatory and antiseptic. Aerial part is spasmolytic and antiprotozoal. Root is antiprotozoal, CVS active and has effect on nictitating membrane. Leaf is hypoglycaemic (Hussain et al,1992).

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COSTUS

Costus speciosus

San: Pushkara, Kashmeera, Kemuka; Hin: Kebu, Keyu, Kust; Mal: Channakkizhangu, Channakoova; Tam: Kostam; Mar: Penva;

Zingiberaceae Ben: Keu, Kura Tel: Kashmeeramu

Importance Costus is one of the plants which contains diosgenin in its rhizome. It is widely used as starting material in the commercial production of steroidal hormones. The rhizomes are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, burning sensation, flatulence, constipation, helminthiases, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, hiccough, asthma, bronchitis, inflammation and aneamia. It is used to make sexual hormones and contraceptives (Warrier et al,1994).

Distribution The plant is widely distributed in Asia and other tropical countries like India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and China. In India, it occurs mostly in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Tripura and Kerala.

Botany Costus speciosus (Koenig.) Sm. belonging to the family Zingiberaceae consists of two varieties viz., var. nepalensis Rose., found only in Nepal and Arunachal Pradesh and var. argycophyllus Wall., having a wide distribution in India. The plant is a succulent herb with long leafy spirally twisted stems, 2-3m in height and horizontal rhizomes. Leaves are simple, spirally arranged, oblanceolate or oblong, glabrous above, silky pubescent beneath with broad leaf sheaths. Flowers are white, large, fragrant, arranged in dense terminal spikes. Bracts are bright red. The single stamen present is perfect, lip large with incurved margins. Fruits are globose or ovoid capsules with obovoid or sub- globose seeds (Warrier et al,1994).

Agrotechnology Costus can be raised under a wide range of agroclimatic conditions. It prefers sandy loam soil for good growth. Propagation is by rhizomes. The best season for planting is April-May. The seed rate recommended is 2-2.4t/ha. The spacing adopted is 50x50cm. After an initial ploughing FYM or poultry manure should be applied at the rate of 30t/ha and the field is to be ploughed again irrigated and prepared to obtain a fine seed bed. Furrows are opened and the rhizome pieces are placed horizontally at a depth of 8-10cm and covered with soil. Care is taken to place the eye buds facing upwards. After 70-75 days about 9095% sprouting is obtained. Desiccation of the young sprouts have been observed in the hot summer months, necessitating liberal water supply during the period. As SeptemberNovember is the period of maximum tuberization at least two irrigations should be given at that time. One during the sprouting period of the crop followed by two more keeps the crop fairly free of weeds. Application of 37t/ha of poultry manure and fertilizers, 60kg P2O5 and 40kg K2O /ha as a basal doze, along with 80kg N/ha applied in 3 equal split dozes will take care. Crop is harvested at the end of seven months. Harvesting includes 2 operations, cutting the aerial shoots and digging out the rhizomes. Cost of production of diosgenin ranges from Rs. 271-300/kg (Atal, et al,1982).

Properties and Activity Tubers and roots contain diosgenin, 5-stigmast-9(11)-en-3 ol, sitosterol--Dglucoside, dioscin, prosapogenins A and B of dioscin, gracillin and quinones. Various saponins, many new aliphatic esters and acids are reported from its rhizomes, seeds and roots. Seeds, in addition, contain - tocopherol. Saponins from seeds are hypotensive and spasmolytic. Rhizomes possess antifertility, anticholinestrase, antiinflammatory, stimulant, depurative and anthelmintic activities (Hussain et al, 1992).

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ECLIPTA

Eclipta prostrata

Asteraceae

San: Bhrngarajah, Tekarajah; Hin: Bhamgra, Mocakand, Babri; Ben: Kesutthe, Kesraj; Mal: Kannunni, Kayyonni, Kayyunnni; Tam: Kayyantakara, Kaikeri; Kan: Kadiggagaraga; Tel: Guntagalijeran; Arab: Kadim-el-bint

Importance Eclipta is one of the ten auspicious herbs that constitute the group dasapuspam which is considered to destroy the causative factors of all unhealthy and unpleasant features and bestow good health and prosperity. The members of this group cure wounds and ulcers as well as fever caused by the derangement of the tridosas - vata, pitta and kapha. It is used in hepatitis, spleen enlargements, chronic skin diseases, tetanus and elephantiasis. The leaf promotes hair growth and use as an antidote in scorpion sting. The root is used as an emetic, in scalding of urine, conjuctivitis and as an antiseptic to ulcers and wound in cattle. It is used to prevent abortion and miscarriage and also in cases of uterine pains after the delivery. The juice of the plant with honey is given to infants for expulsion of worms. For the relief in piles, fumigation with Eclipta is considered beneficial. A decoction of the leaves is used in uterine haemorrhage. The paste prepared by mincing fresh plants has got an antiinflammatory effect and may be applied on insect bites, stings, swellings and other skin diseases. In Ayurveda, it is mainly used in hair oil, while in Unani system, the juice is used in “Hab Miskeen Nawaz” along with aconite, triphala, Croton tiglium, Piper nigium, Piper longum, Zingiber officinale and minerals like mercury, sulphur, arsenic, borax, etc. for various types of pains in the body. It is also a constituent of “Roghan Amla Khas” for applying on the hair and of “Majun Murrawah-ul-arwah”.

Distribution This plant is widely distributed in the warm humid tropics with plenty of rainfall. It grows commonly in moist places as a weed all over plains of India.

Botany Eclipta prostrata (Linn) Linn. syn. E. alba Hassk. is an annual, erect or postrate herb, often rooting at nodes. Leaves are sessile, 2.5-7.5cm long with white appressed hairs. Floral heads are 6-8 mm in diameter, solitary and white. Fruit is an achene, compressed and narrowly winged. Sometimes, Wedelia calendulacea, which resembles Eclipta prostrata is used for the same purpose.

Properties and Activity The leaves contain stigmasterol, -terthienylmethanol, wedelolactone, dismethylwedelolactone and dismethylwedelolactone-7-glucoside. The roots give hentriacontanol and heptacosanol. The roots contain polyacetylene substituted thiophenes. The aerial part is reported to contain a phytosterol, -amyrin in the n-hexane extract and luteolin-7-glucoside, -glucoside of phytosterol, a glucoside of a triterpenic acid and wedelolactone in polar solvent extract. The polypeptides isolated from the plant yield cystine, glutamic acid, phenyl alanine, tyrosine and methionine on hydrolysis. Nicotine and nicotinic acid are reported to occur in this plant. The plant is anticatarrhal, febrifuge, antidontalgic, absorbent, antihepatic, CVS active, nematicidal, ovicidal and spasmolytic in activity. The alcoholic extract of entire plant has been reported to have antiviral activity against Ranikhet disease virus. Aqueous extract of the plant showed subjective improvement of vision in the case of refractive errors. The herbal drug Trefoli, containing extracts of the plant in combination with others, when administered to the patients of viral hepatitis, produced excellent results.

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BRAHMI

Bacopa monnieri

Scrophulariaceae

San: Brahmi, Sarasvati; Hin: Barami, Jalnim; Ben: Boihim-sak; Mal: Brahmi, Nirbrahmi; Tam: Nirpirami, Piramiyapundu; Kan, Mar: Nirbrahmi

Importance Brahmi or Thyme leaved gratiola is an important drug in Ayurveda for the improvement of intelligence and memory and revitalisation of sense organs. It clears voice and improves digestion. It is suggested against dermatosis, anaemia, diabetes, cough, dropsy, fever, arthritis, anorexia, dyspepsia, emaciation, and insanity. It dispels poisonous affections, splenic disorders and impurity of blood. It is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, biliousness, neuralgia, ascites, flatulence, leprosy, leucoderma, syphilis, sterility and general debility. The whole plant is used in a variety of preparations like Brahmighrtam, Sarasvataristam., Brahmitailam, Misrakasneham, etc. In unani Majun Brahmi is considered as a brain tonic.

Distribution The plant grows wild on damp places and marshy lands in the major part of the plains of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and other tropical countries.

Botany Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell. syn. Monniera cuneifolia Michx., Herpestis monniera (Linn.) H.B. & K. belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae. It is a prostrate, juicy, succulent, glabrous annual herb rooting at the nodes with numerous ascending branches. Leaves are simple, opposite, decussate, sessile, obovate-oblong or spatulate, entire, fleshy, obscurely veined and punctate. Flowers are pale blue or whitish, axillary, solitary, arranged on long slender pedicels. Fruits are ovoid, acute, 2-celled, 2-valved capsules and tipped with style base. Seeds are minute and numerous (Warrier et al, 1993).

Agrotechnology The plant grows throughout the warm humid tropics upto 1200m elevation. Brahmi gets established well in water logged fields. The plant is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings. Land is prepared by ploughing 2 or 3 times. Two to three tonnes/ha of cowdung or compost is applied and the field is again ploughed and levelled. Stem cuttings, 10cm long are spread at a spacing of 20cm. Waterlogging to height of 30cm is always required. Rooting may start within 15-20 days. It will spread over the field within 6 months. Regular application of organic manure will take care of the manurial requirement. Weeding once in a month is required. Care should be taken to maintain water level at a height of 30cm during the growth period. No serious pests or diseases are noted in this crop. Harvesting commences from sixth months onwards. Brahmi leaves can be collected once a month. After 3 years, the whole crop is harvested and removed. Fresh cultivation can be carried out in the same field.

Properties and Activity Earlier workers have reported the isolation of the alkaloids brahmine and hespestine and a mixture of 3 alkaloids from the leaves. Mannitol and saponins were reported later. Subsequent work described isolation of some C27, C29, and C31 hydrocarbons and betulic acid from this plant material. A systematic examination has resulted in the isolation and identification of two saponins designated as bacosides A and B. Bacoside A has chemical structure represented as 3-(-Larabinopyranosyl)-O--D-glucopyranoside-10, 20-dihydroxy-16-ketodammar-24-ene. The mixture of bacosides A and B on hydrolysis give four sapogenins, glucose and arabinose. The constitution of bacogenin A, has been established as 3-30-dihydroxy-20(5)-25-epoxy-22-methyl-24-nordammar-22-en-16-one. Bacogenin A2 has been shown to be an isomer of bacogenin A, differing in configuration at C-20. Bacogenin A4 has been identified as ebelin lactone. The plant is reported to have shown barbiturate hypnosis potentiation effect. The plant is anticancerous and improves learning ability. It is used as a tranquilliser. The plant is astringent, bitter, sweet, cooling, laxative, intellect promoting, anodyne, carminative, digestive,

93

antiinflammatory, anticonvulsant, depurative, cardiotonic, bronchodialator, diuretic, emmenagogue, sudorfic, febrifuge and tonic (Basu et al, 1947; Rastogi et al 1960).

94

INDIAN CROCUS

Kaempferia rotunda

San: Bhumicampaka, Bhucampaka, Hallakah Mal: Chengazhuneerkizhengu, Chengazhuneerkuva Kan: Nelasampiga Tel: Bhucampakamu, Kondakaluva

Zingiberaceae

Hin: Abhuyicampa Tam: Nerppicin Mar: Bhuichampa

Importance The tubers of Indian crocus are widely used as a local application for tumours, swellings and wounds. They are also given in gastric complaints. They help to remove blood clots and other purulent matter in the body. The juice of the tubers is given in dropsical affections of hands and feet, and of effusions in joints. The juice causes salivation and vomiting. In Ayurveda, the improvement formulations using the herb are Chyavanaprasam, Asokarishtam, Baladthatryaditailam, Kalyanakaghritham, etc. The drug “HALLAKAM” prepared from this is in popular use in the form of powder or as an ointment application to wounds and bruises to reduce swellings. It also improves complexion and cures burning sensation, mental disorders and insomnia (NRF, 1998; Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Distribution The plant is distributed in the tropics and sub-tropics of Asia and Africa. The plant grows wild in shaded areas which are wet or humid, especially in forests in South India. It grows in gardens and is known for their beautiful flowers and foliage. It is also cultivated as an intercrop with other commercial crops.

Botany Kaempferia rotunda Linn. belonging to the family Zingiberaceae is an aromatic herb with tuberous root-stalk and very short stem. Leaves are simple, few, erect, oblong or ovatelanceolate, acuminate, 30cm long, 10cm wide, variegated green above and tinged with purple below. Flowers are fragrant, white, tip purple or lilac arranged in crowded spikes opening successively. The plant produces a subglobose tuberous rhizome from which many roots bearing small oblong or rounded tubers arise (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology The plant is a tropical one adapted for tropical climate. Rich loamy soil having good drainage is ideal for the plant. Laterite soil with heavy organic manure application is also well suited. Planting is done in May-June with the receipt of 4 or 5 pre-monsoon showers. The seed rate recommended is 1500-2000kg rhizomes/ha. Whole or split rhizome with one healthy sprout is the planting material. Well developed healthy and disease free rhizomes with the attached root tubers are selected for planting. Rhizomes can be stored in cool dry place or pits dug under shade plastered with mud or cowdung. The field is ploughed to a fine tilth, mixed with organic manure at 10-15t/ha. Seed beds are prepared at a size of 1m breadth and convenient length. Pits are made at 20cm spacing in which 5cm long pieces of rhizomes are planted. Pits are covered with organic manure. They are then covered with rotten straw or leaves. Apply FYM or compost as basal dose at 20 t/ha either by broadcasting and ploughing or by covering the seed in pits after planting. Apply fertilisers at the rate of 50:50:50 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha at the time of first and second weeding. After planting, mulch the beds with dry or green leaves at 15 t/ha. During heavy rainy months, leaf rot disease occurs which can be controlled by drenching 1% Bordeaux mixture. The crop can be harvested after 7 months maturity. Drying up of the leaves is the indication of maturity. Harvest the crop carefully without cutting the rhizome, remove dried leaves and roots. Wash the rhizome in water. They are stored in moisture-proof sheds. Prolonged storage may cause insect and fungus attack (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity The tubers contain crotepoxide and -sitosterol. Tuber contains essential oil which give a compound with melting point 149oC which yielded benzoic acid on hydrolysis. The tubers are acrid, thermogenic aromatic, stomachic, antiinflammatory, sialagogue, emetic, antitumour and vulnerary. 95

96

SWEET FLAG San: Vaca, Ugragandha, Bhadra; Tam: Vasampu; Kan: Bajai;

Acorus calamus Hin: Bacc, Gorbacc; Tel: Vasa Vadaja

Araceae Ben: Bach;

Mal:Vayampu;

Importance The sweet flag is an important medhya drug, capable of improving memory power and intellect. It is used in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, stomatopathy, hoarseness, colic, flatulence, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, amenorrhoea, dismenorrhoea, nephropathy, calculi, strangury, cough, bronchitis, odontalgia, pectoralgia, hepatodynia, otalgia, inflammations, gout, epilepsy, delirium, amentia, convulsions, depression and other mental disorders, tumours, dysentery, hyperdipsia, haemorrhoids, intermittent fevers, skin diseases, numbness and general debility. It is reportedly useful in improving digestion, clearing speech and curing diarrhoea, dysentery, abdominal obstruction and colic. It is also useful in infantile fever, cough bronchitis and asthma. The drug is reported to cure hysteria, insanity and chronic rheumatic complaints. The rhizome is an ingredient of preparations like Vacaditaila, Ayaskrti, Kompancadi gulika, Valiya rasnadi kashaya, etc.

Distribution The plant is a native of Europe. It is distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, especially in India and Sri Lanka. It is found in marshes, wild or cultivated, ascending the Himalayas upto 1800m in Sikkim. It is plentiful in marshy tracts of Kashmir and Sirmoor, in Manipur and Naga Hills.

Botany Acorus calamus Linn. belonging to the family Araceae is a semi-aquatic rhizomatous perennial herb. Rhizome is creeping, much branched, cylindrical or slightly compressed, light brown or pinkish brown externally, white and spongy within. Leaves are bright green, distichous, ensiform, base equitant, thickened in the middle and with wavy margins. Flowers are light brown and densely packed in sessile cylindric spadix. Fruits are oblong, turbinate berries with a pyramidal top. Seeds are few and pendant from the apex of the cells (Warrier et al, 1993). Another species belonging to the genus Acorus is A. gramineus Soland, the roots of which are used in tonic, antiseptics and insecticidal preparations (Chopra et al, 1956).

Agrotechnology Acorus is a hardy plant found growing from tropical to subtropical climates. It needs a good and well distributed rainfall throughout the year. It needs ample sunlight during the growth period as well as after harvest for drying the rhizomes. It may be cultivated in any good but fairly moist soil. It is usually grown in areas where paddy can be grown. It comes up well in clayey soils and light alluvial soils of river bank. The field is laid out and prepared exactly as for rice, irrigated sufficiently and after ploughing twice, watered heavily and again ploughed in the puddle. Sprouted rhizome pieces are used for planting and pressed into the mud at a depth of about 5cm at a spacing of 30x30cm. The rhizomes are planted in such a way that the plants in the second row comes in between the plants of the first row and not opposite to them. FYM is to be applied at 25t/ha. Fertilisers are applied at 25:50:60 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha/yr. Whole of FYM and 1/3 of N, P2O5 and K2O are to be added in the field during March - April as a basal dose. The remaining 2/3 of nutrients is to be given in two equal split doses at 4 months and 8 months after planting. The field is to be regularly irrigated. About 5 cm of standing water is to be maintained in the field in the beginning. Later, it is to be increased to 10 cm as the plant grows. The field is to be regularly weeded. About 8 weedings are to be carried out in all. At each weeding the plants are pressed into the soil. The plant is attacked by mealy bugs. Both shoot and root mealy bugs can be controlled by spraying the shoot and drenching the roots of grown up plants with 10 ml Methyl parathion or 15ml Oxydemeton methyl or 20ml Quinalphos in 10 litres of water. The crop is ready for harvest at the end of first year. The field is to be dried partially so that sufficient 97

moisture is left in the soil to facilitate deep digging. The leaves start turning yellow and dry, indicating maturity. The rhizome will be at a depth of 60cm and having about 30-60cm spread. Therefore, harvesting is to be done carefully. The rhizomes are to be cut into 57.5cm long pieces and all the fibrous roots are to be removed. Yield of rhizome is about 10t/ha (Farooqi et al, 1991).

Properties and Activity Rhizomes, roots and leaves yield essential oil. The important constituents of the Indian oil are asarone and its -isomer. Other constituents are  and -pinene, myrcene, camphene, p-cymene, camphor and linalool, sesquiterpenic ketones like asarone, calamone, calacone, acolamone, iso-acolamone, acoragermacrone, epishyobunone, shyobunone and iso-shyobunone. Alcohol present is preisocalamendiol. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons like elemene, elemane and calarene are also present. Tricyclic sesquiterpenes present are caryophyllene, humulene, guaiene, S-guaizulene, arcurcumene, -cadinene, cadinane, calamenene, calacorene, dihydrocalacorene(calamenene), cadalene and selinene. Roots yield acoric acid as a main constituent in addition to choline. Plant also yields a flavone diglycoside- luteolin 6,8-C-diglucoside. -asarone is the major constituent of essential oil from rhizome (Dandiya et al, 1958,1959; Raquibuddoula, 1967). Rhizome is insecticidal, pisicidal, spasmolytic, hypothermic, CNS active and analgesic. Essential oil is anticonvulsant. Rhizome is acrid, bitter, thermogenic, aromatic, intellect promoting, emetic, laxative, carminative, stomachic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, diuretic, alexeteric, expectorant, anodyne, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, antiinflammatory, sudorific, antipyretic, sialagogue, insecticidal, tranquillizer, sedative, analgesic, antithermic, antiasthmatic, hypotensive, respiratory depressant, aperitive and tonic.

98

CATECHU

Acacia catechu

San:Khadirah; Hin:Khair, Khaira; Ben: Kuth; Tel: Sandra, Khandiramu; Kan: Kaggali

Mimosaceae Mal: Karingali;

Tam: Karunkali;

Importance Catechu is a medium deciduous tree commonly used as a blood purifier and for leoprosy and leucoderma. Catechu or Cutch tree bark is useful in melancholia, conjunctivitis and haemoptysis. It is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, catarrh, cough, pruritus, leprosy, leucoderma, skin diseases, helminthiasis, anorexia, diarrhoea, dysentery, foul ulcers and wounds, haemoptysis, haematemesis, haemorrhages, intermittent fever, inflammations, odontopathy, anaemia, diabetes, splenomegaly and pharyngodyna. The gummy extract of the wood (kath) is useful in laryngopathy, flatulence, anorexia, ulcers, wounds, helminthiasis, leucoderma, leoprosy, skin diseases, urorrhea, colporrhagia, erysipelas and odontopathy. For leprosy, root, leaf, flower, bark and fruits are made into a decoction which is given orally as well as for external dressing. In Unani system it is used in “Marham Kharish Jadid” for skin diseases. “Khadirarisht” is an oral medicine, while “Marham” is for external application.

Distribution It is widely distributed in tropical countries. In India, it is observed from the Indus eastwards to Assam and throughout Peninsular India.

Botany The genus Acacia belonging to the family Mimosaceae consists of a number of species. The important ones are listed as below: A. catechu Willd. A. caesia Willd. A. arabica Willd. A. concinna DC. A. farnesiana Willd. A. ferruginea DC. A. instia W. & A. syn. A. caesia Willd. A. jacquemontii Benth. A. leucophloea Willd. A. modesta Wall. A. pinnata (Linn.) Willd. A. pycnantha Benth. A. senegal Willd. A. suma Buch-Ham. syn. A. suma Kurz. A. catechu is a moderate sized deciduous tree, 9-12m in height with dark greyish or brown rough bark and hooked short spines. Leaves are bipinnately compound, leaflets 30-50 pairs, main rachis pubescent with a large conspicuous gland near the middle of the rachis. Flowers are pale yellow, sessile in peduncled axiallary spikes. Fruits are flat brown pods, shiny and with a triangular beak at the apex and narrowed at the base. Seeds are 3-10 per pod. The gummy extract of the wood is commercially known as ‘ Kath’ or ‘Cutch’. The cutch available in the market is brittle, of different shapes and dark brown in colour. On breaking, it is found to be shiny and form crystal like pieces (Warrier et al, 1993).

Agrotechnology Catechu is suited to hilly areas and rocky places. The plant is propagated by seeds. Seeds are soaked in water for 6 hours and sown in seedbeds. Seeds germinate within a month. At four-leaf stage, seedlings are planted in polybags. Two months old seedlings from the polybags are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are taken at a distance of 45m between plants and filled with topsoil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio. Seedlings 99

are planted in these pits. Application of organic manure every year during the rainy season is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be carried out. Pruning of branches and tender shoots developing from the base of the plant can be done from second year onwards. Tree is to be grown as single stemmed one. Flowering and fruiting commences from fourth year onwards. At the end of tenth year, the tree can be cut and heartwood collected (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Heartwood contains kaempferol, dihydro kaempferol, taxifolin, iso rhamnetin(+)afzelchin, a dimeric procyanidin, quercetin, (-)epi-catechin, (-)catechin, fisetin, quercetagetin and (+)-cyanidanol. The main constituent of heartwood is catechin and catechu tannic acid. Catechin is a mixture of at least four isomers and L(-)epicatechin has been isolated and characterised (Rao et al,1948; Husain et al,1992). The bark is anthelmintic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory and antileprotic. The flowers are antigonorrhoeic. The cutch from wood is anthelmintic, tonic and aphrodisiac. Bark and cutch are antidiarrhoeal, astringent and stomachic. Cyanidanol is hepatoprotective. The wood is hypoglycaemic, antiinflammatory and hypotensive. The stem is spasmolytic and antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).

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SOLANUMS

Solanum spp.

Solanaceae

Solanums comprise a very important group of medicinal plants having multifarious uses. These plants belong to the family Solanaceae and genus Solanum. A number of species are reported to be medicinal which are briefly described below.

1. S. anguivi Lam. syn. S. indicum auct. non Linn. Eng: Poison berry; San: Brhati, Simhi; Hin: Barhauta, Birhatta; Mal: Puthirichunda, Cheruchunda; Tam: Karimulli, Puthirichundai; Kan: Ramagulla; Tel: Cittimulaga, Tellamulaka It is found throughout the tropics, in plains and at low elevations. It is much branched, very prickly undershrub, 0.3-1.5m in height. Leaves are simple, large, ovate, subentire, sinuate or lobed. Flowers are blue in extra-axillary cymes having stellately hairy and prickly peduncles. Fruits are globose berries, reddish or dark yellow with smooth or minutely pitted seeds. Its roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, odontalgia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, verminosis, diarrhoea, pruritus, leprosy, skin diseases, strangury, cough, asthma, bronchitis, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, fever, cardiac disorders and vomiting. Roots bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, anodyne, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, stomachic, constipating, resolvent, demulcent, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, febrifuge and cardiotonic.

2. S. dulcamara Linn. Eng: Bittersweet, Bitter night shade; San: Kakmachi; Pun: Rubabarik It is found in tropical situations in India and Sikkim. The plant is rich in alkaloidal glycosides like solamarine, tomatidenol, solasodine and soladulcine. The berry and twig are alterative, antisyphilitic, diaphoretic, resolvent, narcotic, diuretic, antirheumatic and used in liver disorders and psoriasis.

3. S. erianthum D. Don, syn. S. verbascifolium auct. non Linn. San: Vidari; Hin: Asheta; Mal: Malachunda; Tam: Malaichundai, Anaisundaikkai Pun: Kalamena; Tel: Rasagadi The plant is distributed over the tropical and subtropical zones of India. The plant contains alkaloids and steroidal sapogenins. Leaves and fruits contain solasodine, solasodiene, solafloridine, diosgenin, vespertilin and pregnenolone. The plant is CNS depressant, antiinflammatory and useful in burns.

4. S. melongena Linn. Eng: Brinjal, Egg plant; San: Varttaki; Hin: Bengan, Badanjan; Mal: Vazhuthina Tam: Kattirikkai; Kan: Badanekaya, Doddabadane; Tel: Vankaya, Niruvanga It is mainly cultivated as a vegetable throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is an erect or suffrutescent, herbaceous, armed or unarmed perennial shrub. Leaves are simple, large, entire and lobed. Flowers are blue, in clusters of 2-5. Fruits are large, white, yellow or dark purple berries of different shapes capped with thick persistent calyx. Seeds are many, yellow or cream and discoid. The roots, leaves and unripe fruits are useful in cholera, bronchitis, asthma, odontalgia and fever. The roots are laxative, analgesic and cardiotonic. Leaves are sialagogue, narcotic and antiherpetic. The unripe fruits are bitter, acrid, sweet, aphrodisiac, cardiotonic and haematinic.

5. S. melongena var. incanum (Linn.) Prain syn. S. incanum Linn., S. coagulens Forsk. San: Brihati; Hin: Baigan; Mal: Cheruvazhuthina It is a herbaceous prickly plant found in warm humid tropics. It is grown almost throughout the year in the plains and during summer on the hills. It grows 0.6-2m in height. Leaves are simple, alternate lobed. Flowers are blue or white, 5 lobed, calyx with spines. Fruits are ellipsoid berries. The plant is a constituent of the dasamoola which helps to overcome vitiated tridoshas and cures dyspepsia, fever, respiratory and cardiac disorders,

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skin ailments, vomiting, ulcers and poisonous affections. In Ayurveda the formulations like Brihatyadi Kashaya, dashamoolarishta, Indukantaghritam, Dasamoolaharithaki, etc are the important preparations with the roots. It is also used in the treatment of toothache and sore throat. The fruit is reported to stimulate the intrahepatic metabolism of cholesterol. Roots are antiasthmatic and stimulant. Leaves are used in cholera, bronchitis and asthma. Fruits are useful in liver complaints.

6. S. nigrum Linn. syn. S. rubrum Mill. Eng: Black night shade; San: Kakamachi; Hin: Makoy, Gurkkamai; Mal: Karimthakkali; Tam: Manathakkali, Milagutakkali; Kan: Kakarndi; Tel: Kamachi, Kachi It is seen wild throughout India. It is an erect, divaricately branched, unarmed, suffrutescent annual herb. Leaves are ovate or oblong, sinuate-toothed or lobed and glabrous. Flowers are 3-8 in extra-axillary drooping subumbellate cymes. Fruits are purplish black or reddish berries. Seeds are many, discoid, yellow, minutely pitted. The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of tridosha, rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, strangury, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting, cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, haemarrhoids, nephropathy, dropsy and general debility. The plant is bitter, acrid, emollient, antiseptic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

7. S. spirale Roxb. Hin: Munguskajur It is seen wild in Assam and Khasi hills in India. Its root is diuretic and narcotic.

8. S. stramoniifolium Jacq., syn. S. ferox auct. non Linn. San: Garbhada; Hin: Rambaigan; Mal: Anachunda; Tam: Anaichundai; Tel: Mulaka It is observed in India in the states of Assam, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Its berries contain glycoalkaloids such as solasonine and solasodine. Its roots and berries are bechic, antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, antiviral, anticancerous and spermicidal.

9. S. surattense Burm. F. syn. S. xanthocarpum schrad. & Wendl., S. jacquinii Willd. Eng: Yellow-berried nightshade; San: Kantakari, Nidigdhika; Hin: Remgani,Kateli; Mal: Kantakarichunda; Tam: Kantankattiri; Kan: Nelagulli; Tel: Callamulaga It is found throughout India and Pakistan in dry situations as weed on roadsides and wastelands. It is prickly, diffuse, bright green, suffrutescent, perennial undershrub, with zigzag branches. Leaves are ovate-oblong, hairy on both sides and armed on the midrib and the nerves. Flowers are bluish purple, in extra-axillary cymes. Fruits are glabrous, globular drooping berry, yellow or white with green veins, surrounded by the calyx. Seeds are many, small, reniform, smooth and yellowish brown. The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, helminthiasis, dental caries, inflammations, flatulence, constipation, dyspepsia, anorexia, leprosy, skin diseases, hypertension, fever, cough, asthma, bronchitis, hiccough, lumbago, haemorrhoids and epilepsy. The plant is bitter, acrid, thermogenic, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, carminative, appetiser, stomachic, depurative, sudorific, febrifuge, expectorant, laxative, stimulant, diuretic, rejuvenating, emmenagogue and aphrodisac. Fruits contain solasonine, solamargine and solasodine.

10. S. torvum Sw. Eng: West Indian Turkey Berry; Hin, Ben: Titbaigan; Mal: Kattuchunda; Kan: Kadu Sunde; Tam: Sundaikai, Amarakai; Tel: Kundavustic, Kotuvestu; Ass: Hathibhekuri It is seen throughout tropical India, particularly in Orissa, Bihar and Manipur. The plant is CVS active and used in splenomegaly. Fruits and leaves contain solasonine,

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solasodine, jurubine, jurubidine, torvonin, torvogenin, chlorogenin, paniculogenin, sisalogenone, neosolaspigenin and solaspigenin.

11. S. trilobatum Linn. Eng: Climbing Brinjal; San: Alarka; Mal: Tutavalam; Tam: Tuduvalai; Kan: Mullumusta; Tel: Telavuste It is mostly seen in South and Western India. The plant contains alkamine and solamarine. The berry and flowers are bechic and used in bronchitis. The alkaloid solamarine is antibiotic and possesses antitumour activity.

12. S. viarum Dunal, syn. S. Khasianum C. B. Clarke Hin: Kantakari It is widely distributed in Khasi, Jaintia and Naga hills of Assam and Manipur upto 2000m and in Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa and in the Niligiris. The plant and berries contain solasonine (which on hydrolysis yields solasodine), solamargine, khasianine, nantigenin, solasodine, diosgenin and saponin-solakhasianin. The plant is spasmolytic and CNS active. The berry is a source of solasodine used in the synthesis of corticosteroidal hormones.

Agrotechnology The agrotechnology for the solanaceous group of plants are almost similar. They come up very well in tropical and subtropical climate upto 2000m altitude. They can be raised on a variety of soils good in organic matter. Propagation is by seeds. The seedlings are first raised in the nursery and transplanted to the main field 30-45 days after sowing when the plants attain 8-10cm height. During rainy season, planting is done on ridges while during summer in furrows, at a spacing ranging from 30-90cm depending upon the stature and spreading habit of the plant. The transplanted seedlings should be given temporary shade for 2-4 days during summer. FYM or compost at 20-25t/ha is applied at the time of land preparation. A moderate fertiliser dose of 75:40:40 N, P2O5, K2O/ha may be given. P is given as basal dose, N and K are applied in 2-3 split doses. One or two intercultural operations are needed to control weeds. The plants need earthing up after weeding and topdressing. Irrigation is needed at 3-4 days interval during summer and on alternate days during fruiting period. Plants need staking to avoid lodging due to heavy bearing. Shoot borers, mealy bugs, leaf webbers and miners are noted on the crop, which can be controlled by spraying mild insecticides. Root knot nematode, wilting and mosaic diseases are also noted on the crop. Field sanitation, crop rotation and burning of crop residues are recommended.

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STROBILANTHES San: Sahacarah, Sairyakah; Tam: Kurunji, Sinnakurunji

Strobilanthes ciliatus Hin: Karvi, Kara;

Acanthaceae

Mal: Karimkurunji, Kurunji;

Importance Strobilanthes is an important shrub used in the treatment of rheumatism. The roots are useful in rheumatalgia, lumbago, siatica, limping, chest congestion, strangury, fever, leucoderma, skin diseases, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, odontalgia and general debility. The leaves and bark are useful in whooping cough, fever, bronchitis, dropsy, leucoderma, leprosy, pouritus, inflammations, scrofula and fever (Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution It is distributed in tropical countries, such as India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and in a few subtropical countries. It is observed in India, throughout the evergreen forests of Western Ghats upto 1200m. It is also cultivated.

Botany The genus Strobilanthes belonging to the family Acanthaceae consists of 3 species namely, S. ciliatus Nees.,syn. Nilgirianthus ciliatus (Nees) Bremek S. auriculatus Nees. and S. callisus Nees. S. ciliatus is a slender shrub with subquandrangular white dotted dark green or purple stems and branches. Leaves are dark green, elliptic, accuminate at both ends, serrate, glabrous with 6-7 pairs of main nerves. Flowers are white to lilac, arranged in axillary slender glabrous spikes. Fruits are very rarely formed. Adventitious roots arise from a few basal nodes also. The main roots as well as the nodal roots are used as raw drugs (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology Strobilanthes prefers silty loam soil, mixed with sand, for good growth. It grows abundantly in river banks, lowlands and plains. The best season of planting is May-June. The field is to be ploughed to a fine tilth and mixed with 5-7t/ha of FYM/compost/dried cowdung. Seed beds of size 3m length, 0.5m width and 15cm height are to be made in which 10cm long stem cuttings are to be planted at a spacing of 30cm between plants. Rooting occurs within 20 days. Two weedings should be carried out at 2 months and 4 months after planting, followed by organic manure application. Irrigation is not a must but during summer months it is beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Harvesting can be done at the end of the second year. For this the plants are to be cut, roots dug out and collected. Roots are to be washed well, dried in sun and marketed. Roots, leaves and bark constitute the economic parts (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity The leaves and stem yield essential oil which is of good medicinal value. The roots are bitter, sweet, thermogenic, emollient, diuretic, febrifuge, diaphoretic, depurative, antiinflammatory and tonic. Leaves and bark are diaphoretic, expectorant, depurative and febrifuge.

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FENUGREEK

Trigonella foenum-graecum

Fabaceae

San: Methika, Methi, Kalanusari; Hin: Meti, Mutti; Ben, Mar: Methi; Mal: Uluva; Tam: Ventayam; Kan: Mentya, Menlesoppu; Tel: Mentulu, Mentikura; Arab: Hulabaha

Importance Fenugreek or Greek Hayes is cultivated as a leafy vegetable, condiment and as medicinal plant. The leaves are refrigerant and aperient and are given internally for vitiated conditions of pitta. A poultice of the leaves is applied for swellings and burns. Seeds are used for fever, vomiting, anorexia, cough, bronchitis and colonitis. In the famous Malayalam treatises like ‘Padhyam’ ‘Kairali’ and ‘Arunodhayam’, uluva is recommended for use as kalanusari in Dhanvantaram formulations of ‘Astaghradayam’. An infusion of the seeds is a good cool drink for small pox patients. Powdered seeds find application in veterinary medicine. An aqueous extract of the seeds possesses antibacterial property (Kumar et al, 1997; Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution Fenugreek is a native of South Eastern Europe and West Asia. In India fenugreek is grown in about 0.30 lakh ha producing annually about 30,000 tonnes of seeds. The major states growing fenugreek are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Karnataka. It is grown wild in Kashmir and Punjab.

Botany Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. belongs to family, Fabaceae. It is an annual herb, 30-60cm in height, leaves are light green, pinnately trifoliate, leaflets toothed, flowers are white or yellowish white, papilionaceous and axillary. Fruits are legumes, 5-7.5cm long, narrow, curved, tapering with a slender point and containing 10-20 deeply furrowed seeds per pod. There are two species of the genus Trigonella which are of economic importance viz. T. foenum graecum, the common methi and T. corniculata, the Kasuri methi. These two differ in their growth habit and yield. The latter one is a slow growing type and remains in rosette condition during most of the vegetative growth period (Kumar et al, 1997; Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology Fenugreek has a wide adaptability and is successfully cultivated both in the tropics as well as temperate regions. It is tolerant to frost and freezing weather. It does well in places receiving moderate or low rainfall areas but not in heavy rainfall area. It can be grown on a wide variety of soils but clayey loam is relatively better. The optimum soil pH should be 6-7 for its better growth and development. Some of the improved cultivars available for cultivation are CO1 (TNAU), Rajendra Kanti (RAU), RMt-1(RAU) and Lam Selection-1 (APAU). Land is prepared by ploughing thrice and beds of uniform size are prepared. Broadcasting the seed on the bed and raking the surface to cover the seeds is normally followed. But to facilitate intercultural operations, line sowing is also advocated in rows at 20-25cm apart. Sowing in the plains is generally in September-November while in the hills it is from March. The seed rate is 20-25kg/ha and the seeds germinate within 6-8 days. Besides 15t of FYM, a fertiliser dose of 25:25:50kg NPK/ha is recommended. Entire P,K and half N are to be applied basally and the remaining half N 30 days after sowing. First irrigation is to be given immediately after sowing and subsequent irrigations at 7-10 days interval. Hoeing and weeding are to be done during the early stages of plant growth and thinning at 25-30 days to have a spacing of 10-15cm between plants and to retain 1-2 plants per hill. Root rot (caused by Rhizoctonia solani) is a serious disease and can be controlled by drenching carbendazim 0.05% first at the onset of the disease and another after one monthof first application. In about 25-30 days, young shoots are nipped off 5cm above ground level and subsequent cuttings of leaves may be taken after 15 days. It is advisable to take 1-2 cuttings before the crop is allowed for flowering and fruiting when pods are dried, the plants are pulled out, dried in the sun and seeds are threshed by beating with stick or by rubbing 105

with hands. Seeds are winnowed, cleaned and dried in the sun. They may be stored in gunny bags lined with paper. An yield of 1200-1500kg of seeds and about 800-1000kg of leaves may be obtained per hectare in crops grown for both the purposes (Kumar et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Seeds contain sapogenins-diosgenin, its 25-epimer(yamogenin), tigogenin, gitogenin, yuccagenin, 25-2-spirosta-3-5-diene and its -epimer. Seeds also contain a C27-steroidal sapogenin-peptide ester-fenugreekine. Seeds, in addition, contain 4-hydroxyleucine and saponins-fenugrins A-E:two furostanol glycoxides-trigonelloxide C and (255)-22-O-methyl52-firostan-3,22,26,triol-3-O--rhamnopyrans syl(1-2) C--D-glucopyranosyl (1-3)--Dglucopyranoxide-26-O--D-glucopyranoxide. Other chemical constituents are sterols--sitosterol and cholesterol, flavone Cglycosides-vitexin, iso-vitexin, vitexin-2”-O-P-coumarate and vicenin-2. Flavonoidsquercetin and luteolin, flavonoid glycoside-vicenin-I. Invitro seedling callus culture gave flavonoids-luteolin and vitexin-1-glycoside. An essential oil is also reported from seeds. Leaves gave saponins-gracecunins A-G, flavonoids- kaempferol and quercetin; sterols-sitosterol, sapogenins-diosgenin, gitogenin coumarin-scopoletin is also reported from the plant. Seeds are bitter, mucilaginous, aromatic, carminative, tonic, diuretic, thermogenic, galactagogue, astringent, emollient, amophrodisiac, antirheumatic, CNS depressant and antiimplantation. Fenugreekine is hypoglycaemic, diuretic, hypotensive, cardiotonic, antiphlogistic. It showed 80% inhibition of vaccina virus.

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LEADWORT

Plumbago spp.

Plumbaginaceae

The genus Plumbago belonging to the family Plumbaginaceae is a popular and medicinally very important group of medicinal plants. Three species, namely P. rosea, P. zeylanica and P. auriculata have been identified. Among these P. rosea and P. zeylanica are important ones. Plumbago, in general is an esteemed remedy for leucoderma and other skin diseases. The synonyms of fire like agnih, vahnih, etc. are attributed to this drug to indicate the very burning action of the root, causing blisters on the skin (daranah). The drug is used only after adequate curing and purification. Root is the officinal part and it enters into the composition of preparations like Citrakasavam, Dasamularista, Gulgulutiktaka kasaya, Yogarajachurna, etc.

1. P. rosea Linn. syn. P. indica Linn. Eng: Rosy-flowered Leadwort; San: Citrakah, Dhahanah; Hin: Lalcitra, Raktacitra; Ben: Lalchita; Mal: Kotuveli, Chettikkoduveli, Chuvannakotuveli; Tam: Chenkotuveli, Cittiramulam; Kan: Kempacitramula; Tel: Yerracitramulam Rosy-flowered leadwort or Fire plant is a native of Coromandel Coast. It is found throughout India, in moist situations as well as cultivated. The roots are useful in dyspepsia, colic, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, helmenthiasis, haemorrhoids, elephantiasis, chronic and intermittent fever, leprosy, leucoderma, ringworm, scabies, hepatosplenomegaly, amenorrhoea, odontalgia, vitiated conditions of vata, kapha and anaemia. It is a pretty subscandent perennial shrub with semi-woody striate stems and flexible branches. Leaves are simple, alternate oblong, short cuneate at the base passing into a very short amplexicaul, exauriculate, and reddish petiole. Flowers are bright red, arranged in long terminal spikes. The calyx ribs are covered with stipitate, bifarious and subsessile gland. Corolla tube is slender and four times as long as the calyx. The stout roots are cylindrical, irregularly bent, light yellowish brown with smooth surface having short transverse shallow fissures at the regions of the bents. A light yellowish juice excudes from the cut surface. A healthy plant may produce 18-20 stout roots (Warrier et al, 1995). The chemical constituents include plumbagin and sitosterol glucoside. Clinical trials have demonstrated that plumbagin oil from P. indica is useful in common wart (Satyavati et al, 1987). The roots are acrid, astringent, thermogenic, anthelmintic, constipating, expectorant, antiinflammmatory, abortifacient, alterant, anti-periodic, carminative, digestive, sudorific, narcotic, gastric, nervous stimulant and rejuvenating. Root is a powerful sialogogue and vesicant.

2. P. zeylanica Linn. Eng:White flowered Leadwort; San:Chitraka; Hin, Ben:Chitarak, Chitra; Mal:Vellakotuveli Tam: Sittragam, Chittiramoolam; Kan: Vahini; Mar: Chitraka; Tel: Chitramulam White flowered Leadwort or Chitarak is found wild in peninsular India and mostly in West Bengal. Root is used externally in leprosy and other skin diseases or obstinate character, aphthae, abscesses, influenza, piles and anasarca. Juice is used externally in scabies and ulcers. One of the important preparations of Chitrak is “Yograjguggal”, prescribed for arthritis, rheumatism, etc. The other well known preparations are “Chitrak Adivati” and “ Chitraka Haritaki”. In Unani system it is an ingredient of “Aqaruva-iKabir”, “Hab Ashkhar”, “Ma’jun Baladur”, “Ma’jun Raig Mahi”, etc. It is a branched undershrub. Roots are long and tuberous. Stem is striate. Leaves are simple, alternate, short petioled, ovate or ovate-oblong, acute with entire or wavy margin, 7x3.8cm and glabrous. Flowers are white, arranged in terminal spikes. Calyx is tubular, glandular-hairy. Corolla tube is slender; limb rotate and 5 lobbed. Stamens are 5 on a disc. Style is slender with 5 stigmatic branches. Fruit is membranous capsule enclosed within the persistent calyx. The roots of P. zeylanica have been exhaustively studied and naphthaquinones have been isolated, namely, plumbagin, 3-chlroplumbagin, droserone (Sidhu et al, 1971; Padhye 107

et al, 1973), 3,3’-biplumbagin(Chitranone), zeylanone and iso-zeylanone and a coumarin, elliptinone (Sankaram et al, 1976, 1979). It also contains 1,2(3)-tetrahydro-3,3’-biplumbagin and plumbazeylanone. The leaf is antirheumatic. Root is appetiser, sudorific, relieves pain, vasicant, diuretic, caustic, antidiarrhoeal and expellent of phlegmatic tumours. Root is uterine stimulant. Root and fruits have antiimplantation activity. Plumbagin induces antiimplantation, has abortifacient and antiovulatory activity and causes selective testicular lesions in dogs. It is also a mitotic inhibitor. In lower concentration it behaves like a spindle, poison but in higher concentration it exhibits radiomimetic, nucleotoxic and cyclotoxic effects. It also has antibacterial, antifungal and anticoagulant activities and shows antagonism to amphetamine hyperactivity in mice.

3. P. auriculata Lam. syn. P. capensis Eng: Blue flowered Leadwort; Mal: Neelakotuveli The blue flowered Leadwort is often grown in gardens throughout India (Moos, 1976; Chunekar, 1982; Sharma, 1983). It is a native of Cape Province in South Africa. It is a constituent of many Ayurvedic drugs (KAU, 1991). The plant is a subshrub growing to a height of 1-1.5m. Leaves are elliptic to obovate, 3-4 x 1.5-2cm. Inflorescence is a raceme of length 3-4cm. Corolla is blue to violet. Stamens are 5 in number. Flowers and fruits may be upto 12 in number (Matthew, 1995).

Agrotechnology The plant is grown in tropical to subtropical ecosystems. Warm humid tropical climate is most suited. They come up well in almost all types of deep and well drained soils. It is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings. Three stem cuttings of size 15cm long are planted in polybags of size 14x10cm. IAA and IBA treatments will improve rooting of cuttings. The land is to be ploughed well. About 4 tonnes of FYM are to be applied, mixed thoroughly and seed bed of size 50cm breadth, 1.5cm height and convenient length are to be prepared. On these beds pits are taken at a distance of 25cm and the rooted plants are transplanted from the polybags. Regular irrigation and weeding are to be carried out. In the second year with the onset of monsoon, seedbeds are again refreshed after adding about 4 tonnes of FYM. At the end of second year tubers are collected. Care should be taken to wear gloves, else the chemical plumbagin present in the roots will cause burning sensation. The collected tubers are washed, tied into bundles and marketed. Plumbago yields about 710t tubers/ha with good management (Prasad et al, 1997).

108

MESUA

Mesua nagassarium

Clusiaceae

San: Nagapuspah, Nagakesarah; Hin: Nagakesar; Ben: Nagkesar, Nagesar; Mal: Nagappuvu, Nagachempakam, Nanku, Vayanavu, Churuli, Eliponku; Tam: Nagappu, Nanku; Kan: Nagasampige; Tel: Nagakesaramu, Gajapuspam; Mar, Guj: Nagchampa

Importance Mesua or Ironwood tree, commonly known as Nagapushpam is an important medicinal plant which finds varied uses in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani. Leaves are used in the form of poultice which is applied to head in severe colds. Bark and roots in decoction or infusion or tincture is a better tonic and are useful in gastritis and bronchitis. Fixed oil expressed from seeds is used as an application for cutaneous affections, sores, scabies, wounds, etc. and as an embrocation in rheumatism. Dried flowers powdered and mixed with ghee, or a paste made of flowers with addition of butter and sugar, are given in bleeding piles as well as dysentery with mucus. They are also useful in thirst, irritability of the stomach, excessive perspiration, cough with much expectoration, dyspepsia, etc. Leaves and flowers are used in scorpion stings. Syrup of the flower buds is given for the cure of dysentery (Nadkarni et al, 1976). In Ayurveda, it is an ingredient of “Nagakeshara-adiChurna”, used for bacillary dysentery and in “Naga Keshara Yoga”, for piles. In Unani system, the drug is an ingredient of large number of recipes like, “Jawarish Shehryaran” a stomach and liver tonic, “Hab Pachaluna”, an appetiser, “Halwa-i-supari pack” a general tonic, etc. (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution The plant occurs in sub-tropical to tropical areas of East India, Andaman Islands and Western Ghats, upto an altitude of 1500m.

Botany Mesua nagassarium (Burm.f.) Kosterm. syn. M. ferrea auct. non Linn. belongs to the family Clusiaceae. It is a medium sized to large evergreen tree, 18-30m in height and with reddish brown bark which peels off in thin flakes. Leaves are simple, opposite, thick, lanceolate, coriaceous, covered with waxy bloom underneath, and red when young, acute or acuminate and with inconspicuous nerves. Flowers are white, very fragrant, axillary or terminal, solitary or in pairs. Stamens are numerous, golden yellow, much shorter than the petals. Fruits are ovoid with a conical point surrounded by the enlarged sepals. Seeds are 1-4 in number, angular, dark brown and smooth (Warrier et al, 1995). The flowers of Ochrocarpus longifolius are also sometimes referred to as Nagakesara. This tree is found in the West Coast of India (Thakur et al, 1989).

Agrotechnology The plant prefers plains, riverbanks or places which do not experiences moisture stress for its luxuriant growth. Silty loam soil is suitable for its cultivation. The plant is propagated by seeds. Seed formation occurs in November-March. Seeds are to be collected and sown in seedbeds or polybags. 3-4 months old seedlings are used for transplanting. Pits of size 45cm cube are to be taken at a distance of 3-3.5m and filled with a mixture of 10kg FYM, sand and top soil and made into a mound. Seedlings are to be transplanted into small handpits taken on these mounds. FYM is to be applied twice a year. Regular irrigation and weeding are to be done. The tree flowers in the fourth year. Flowers can be collected, dried in the sun and marketed (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and Activity Seed oil gives 4-phenyl coumarin analogues-mesuol, mammeigin, mesuagin, mammeisin and mesuone. Bark gives ferruols A and B. Heartwood gives xanthoneseuxanthone, mesuaxanthones A and B and a tetroxygenated xanthone named ferraxanthone. Stamens give  and -amyrin, -sitosterol, biflavonoids- mesuaferrones A and B, and mesuanic acid. Bark yields a lupeol-type triterpenoid also named guttiferol. Seed oil is rich in oleic, stearic and palmitic acids. Linoleic, arachidic and linolenic acids are also present. 109

Mesuaxanthones A and B and euxanthone are antiinflammatory, CNS depressant and antimicrobial. The essential oil from the stamens is antibacterial, antifungal, anthelmintic and that from fruit is antifungal. Oral administration of a compound preparation containing Mesua ferrea (flowers), Foeniculum vulgare (seeds), Curcuma zeodaria (tubers), Nigella sativa (seeds), Terminalia chebula (seeds) and T. arjuna (stem-bark) exhibited antiimplantation activity in rats. An Ayurvedic preparations containing M. ferrea has haemostatic and astringent properties and is particularly useful in uterine bleeding. Aerial part is CVS active, spasmolytic and diuretic. Phenol containing fraction of seed oil is antiasthmatic and antianaphylaxis. Bark is used as tonic after childbirth. Bark and unripe fruit is sudorific. Leaf and flower is an antidote for snakebite and scorpion sting. Flower bud is antidysenteric. Flower is stomachic and expectorant. Seed oil is antirheumatic. Unripe fruit and flower is astringent (Husain et al,1992).

110

BAUHINIA

Bauhinia variegata

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Kancanarah, Kovidarah; Hin: Kancanar; Ben: Rakta Kanchan; Tam: Sigappu-mandarai Mal: Mandaram, Chuvannamandaram, Malayakatti, Kongu, Kongumandaram; Tel: Daeva Kanchanamu, Mandara; Kan: Ullipe, Kanchavala, Kempu Mandara

Importance In traditional medicine, Bauhinia is extensively used in glandular diseases and as an antidote to poison. The drug is also reported to be useful in dysentery, diarrhoea, piles and worms (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma et al, 1983). They are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, diarrhoea, dysentery, skin diseases, leprosy, intestinal worms, tumours, wounds, ulcers, inflammations, scrofula, protoptosis, haemorrhoids, haemoptysis, cough, menorrhagia and diabetics. Usirasavam and Candanasavam are some of the preparations using the drug. An important Ayurvedic preparation, “Kanchnar Guggal” contains bark of this plant. In Unani system, the flowers are used in “Hab Mussafi Khun”, for skin diseases, the bark is used in “Sufuf Kalan”-an aphrodisiac.

Distribution The plant is distributed in the Sub-Himalayan tracts from the Indus eastwards and throughout the dry forests of India, ascending to 1300m. It is also cultivated throughout the plains.

Botany Bauhinia variegata Linn. syn. B. candida Roxb. belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae is a moderate sized deciduous tree with vertically cracked grey bark, wood moderately hard, greyish brown with irregular darker patches. Leaves are of 2 leaflets, connate for about two-thirds up. Leaflets are ovate with rounded apex, 10-15cm long, pubescent beneath when young and coriaceous. Flowers are white or pink, the uppermost petal darker and variegated usually appearing before the leaves in short axillary or terminal racemes. Stamens are 5 and stamenodes absent. Fruits are flat dehiscent pods with 10-15 seeds (Warrier et al, 1993). Other important species of the genus Bauhinia are as follows.

1. B. tomentosa Linn. It is the yellow or golden flowered one, commonly known as Manja Mandaram. It is found in Africa and Asia. In India it is found wild in dry deciduous forests and often cultivated. The plant is antidysenteric, antidote for snakebite and scorpion sting and also used in liver complaints. The bark is astringent. Root bark is vermifuge. Fruit is diuretic. Seed is tonic, wound healing and aphrodisiac.

2. B. purpurea Linn. Pink Bauhinia or Camel’s Foot tree is found in South and S. E. Asia. In India, it is found in deciduous forests. Root is carminative and tonic. Bark is astringent and antidiarrhoeal and is used in ulcer and goitre. Flowers are laxative. The experimental studies conducted by Sijoria and Prasad (1979) on animals indicate that B. purpurea is very effective in normalising the thyroid gland.

3. B. racemosa Lam. The plant is found in Sub-Himalayan tracts, in U.P, West Bengal, Central and South India. The leaf is anticephalalgic and antimalarial. Bark is astringent, antidiarrhoeal. The seeds are antibacterial. Stem-bark is CVS and CNS active, hypothermic and anticancerous.

4. B. malabarica Roxb. Malabar Mountain Ebony is found in Sub-Himalayan tracts, from Kumaon to West Bengal, ascending to 1350m, Assam, Bihar and South India. The flowers of this plant are antidysenteric. 111

5. B. retusa Roxb. The plant is distributed in north-western Himalayas from the Beas eastwards, Himachal Pradesh, U.P., Orissa, M.P. and A.P. The gum of the plant is emmenagogue, diuretic and can be used externally in sores. The seed is hypoglycaemic and hypocholesterolaemic. The aerial part is CVS active and has effect on respiration.

6. B. vahlii W.&A. Camel’s Foot climber is found in Punjab, Bihar, Assam, Madhy Pradesh, Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Leaf is demulcent. Seed is tonic and aphrodisiac. Stem is CVS active, antiarrhythmic and spasmolytic.

Agrotechnology Well drained hilly areas are ideal for the cultivation of Bauhinia. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are formed in February-March. Seeds are to be collected from the dried pods, soaked in water for 12 hours before sowing in seedbeds. At four-leaved stage they are to be transferred to polybags. Two month old seedlings from polybags are used for field planting. Pits of size 60cm cube are to be taken and filled with 10kg dried cowdung mixed with topsoil and formed into a mound. On these seedlings are to be planted at a distance of 6-7.5m. Irrigation is to be given in the first year. Two weedings and application of organic manure once is required in a year. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests and diseases. The plant flowers on the third year. At the end of tenth year the tree can be cut and wood used for medicinal purposes (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity Flowers contain flavanoids-kaempferol-3-galactoside and kaempferol-3rhamnoglucoside. Stem bark yields hentriacontane, octacosanol and stigmasterol. Stem yields -sitisterol, lupiol and a flavanone glycoside-5, 7-dimethoxy flavanone 4-O--Lrhamnopyranoside--D-glucopyranoside. Seeds possess human blood agglutinating activity. Stem bark is hypothermic, CNS active and depressant. Bud, flower, leaf and stembark are antibacterial. Stem possesses juvenoid activity. Bark is alterative, tonic, antileprotic and antirheumatic. Bud is antidysenteric. Root is carminative and antidote for snakebite. Bark, flower and root promote suppuration. Bark and bud are astringent and vermifuge (Husain et al, 1992).

112

GYMNEMA

Gymnema sylvestre

Asclepiadaceae

San: Mesasrngi, Madhunasini; Hin: Gudmar, Merasimgi; Ben: Merasingi; Mal: Chakkarakolli, Madhunasini; Tam: Sirukurumkay, Sakkaraikkolli; Kan: Kadhasige; Tel: Podapatra; Mar: Kavali

Importance Gymnema, Australian Cowplant, Small Indian Ipecacuanha or Periploca of the woods is a woody climber. It is reported to cure cough, dyspnoea, ulcers, pitta, kapha and pain in the eyes. The plant is useful in inflammations, hepatosplenomegaly, dyspepsia, constipation, jaundice, haemorrhoids, strangury, renal and vesical calculi, helminthiasis, cardiopathy, cough, asthma, bronchitis, intermittent fever, amenorrhoea, conjuctivitis and leucoderma. The fresh leaves when chewed have the remarkable property of paralysing the sense of taste for sweet and bitter substance for some time (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug is described as a destroyer of madhumeha (glycosuria) and other urinary disorders. Root has long been reputed as a remedy for snakebite. Leaves triturated and mixed with castor oil are applied to swollen glands and enlargement of internal viscera as the liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954). The drug is used to strengthen the function of heart, cure jaundice, piles, urinary calculi, difficult micturition and intermittent fevers (Sharma,1983). The drug enters into the composition of preparations like Ayaskrti, Varunadi kasaya, Varunadighrtam, Mahakalyanakaghrtam, etc. They suppress the activity of taste of tongue for sweet taste and for this reason it was considered that it destroys sugar, hence the name Madhunashini or Gurmar and has been prescribed as an anti-diabetic. The crude drug as well as its dried aqueous extract is mainly used in bronchial troubles.

Distribution It is a tropical climber. It mainly grows in Western Ghats, Konkan, Tamil Nadu and some parts of Bihar. The plant is cultivated in plains of India but the drug is mainly important from Afghanistan and Iran.

Botany Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.)R. Br. syn. Asclepias germinata Roxb. belonging to the family Asclepiadaceae is a large, woody much branched climber with pubescent young parts. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptic or ovate, more or less pubescent on both sides, base rounded or cordate. Flowers are small, yellow and arranged in umbellate cymes. Fruits are slender and follicles are upto 7.5cm long (Warrier et al, 1995). Two allied species, G. hirsutum found in Bundelkh and Bihar and Western Ghats and G. montanum growing wild in Eastern Ghats and Konkan are also used for the same purpose and are also called “Gurmar” (Thakur et al, 1989).

Agrotechnology The plant can be propagated both by seeds and stem cuttings. Seedlings are to be raised in polybags. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken, filled with 10kg dried cowdung or FYM and covered with topsoil. On these pits about 3-4 months old seedlings are to be transplanted from polybags. Trailing can be facilitated by erecting poles and tying the plants to the poles. The plant will attain good spread within one year. Regular weeding, irrigation and organic manure application are beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Leaves can be collected from the first year onwards at an internal of one week. This can be continued for 10-12 years. Fresh or dried leaves can be marketed (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Nonacosane and hentriacontane were isolated from the hexane extract of leaves. An attempt to isolate nitrogenous compounds led to the isolation of amino acids such as leucine, iso-leucine, valine, allanine and - amynobutyric acid. Isolation of trimethyl amine oxide was of particular interest. An alkaloid gynamine which is a trace constituent was isolated and identified (Sinsheimer et al, 1967). Antisweet constituent of the leaves has been found 113

to be a mixture of triterpene saponins. These have been designated as gymnemic acids A,B,C and D which have the gymnemagenin and gymnestrogenins as the aglycones of gymnemic acid A and B and gymnemic acid C and D respectively. These are hexahydroxy triterpenes the latter being partially acylated. The sugar residues are glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid while ferulic and angelic acids have been attached as the carboxylic acid. Chewing of leaves reduces sensitivity to sweet substances. Effects of gymnema extracts had been variable. While verifying the effect of G. sylvestre leaves on detoxification of snake venom, it has been reported that a toxic component of venom ATP and gymnemate bind at the same site inhibiting venom ATP-ase. The active principles which have been identified as glycosides (7 gymnemic acids) suggest that the topical and selective anaesthetic effect of the plant might result from the competition of the receptor sites between glycosides and the sweet substances (Warren et al, 1969). The leaves are antidiabetic and insulinotropic. Gymnemic acid is antiviral. The plant is bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, liver tonic, emetic, diuretic, stomachic, stimulant, anthelmintic, alexipharmic, laxative, cardiotonic, expectorant, antipyretic and uterine tonic.

114

INDIAN SENNA

Cassia senna

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Svarnapatri; Hin: Sanay, Sana Ka Patt; Ben: Sonamukhi; Mal: Sunnamukki, Chonnamukki, Nilavaka; Tam: Nilavirai, Nilavakai; Tel: Netatangedu

Importance Indian Senna or Tinnevelly senna is a shrub very highly esteemed in India for its medicinal value. The leaves are useful in constipation, abdominal disorders, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, splenomegaly, hepatopathy, jaundice, helminthiasis, dyspepsia, cough, bronchitis, typhoid fever, anaemia, tumours and vitiated conditions of pitta and vata (Warrier et al,1994). It is used in Ayurvedic preparations; “Pancha Sakara Churna”, “Shat Sakara Churna” and “Madhu Yastyadi Churna” used for constipation. Its use is widespread in Unani system and some of the important products of this system containing senna are “Itrifal Mulayyin”, “Jawarish Ood Mulayyin”, “Hab Shabyar”, “Sufuf Mulliyin”, “Sharbat Ahmad Shahi”, etc. used as a mild laxative (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution The plant is of Mediterranean origin. It is found in Somalia, Saudi Arabia, parts of Pakistan and Kutch area of Gujarat. It is largely cultivated in Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.

Botany The genus Cassia, belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae, comprises of a number of species, namely, C. senna Linn. syn. C. angustifolia Vahl. C. absus Linn. C. alata Linn. C. auriculata Linn. C. burmanni Wight. syn. C. obovata (Linn.) Collad. C. glauca Lam. C. javanica Linn. C. mimosoides Linn. C. obtusifolia Linn. syn. C. tora Linn. C. occidentalis Linn. C. pumila Lam. C. slamea Lam. C. acutifolia Delile. C. sophera Linn. C. senna is a shrub or undershrub, 60-75cm in height with pale subterete or obtusely angled erect or spreading branches. Leaves are paripinnate. Leaflets are 5-8 in number, ovate-lanceolate and glabrous. Flowers are yellowish, many and arranged in axillary racemes. Fruits are flat legumes, greenish brown to dark brown and nearly smooth (Chopra et al,1980, Warrier et al,1994). In commerce, the leaves and pods obtained from C. senna are known as “ Tinnevelly Senna” and those from C. acutifolia Delile. as “Alexandrian Senna”. The leaves of C. acutifolia are narrower than C. senna, otherwise both resemble to a large extent (Thakur et al, 1989). All the true Sennas have the portions of their leaves unequally divided. In some kinds the lower part of one side is reduced to little more than a line in breadth, while the other is from a quarter to half an inch in breadth. The drug known under the name of East Indian Senna is nearly free from adulteration; and as its properties appear identical with those of the Alexandrian and the price being less, it probably will supersede it in general practice. Its size and shape readily identify it (Graves, 1996).

Agrotechnology The plant requires a mild subtropical climate with warm winters which are free from frost for its growth. Semiarid areas with adequate irrigation facilities are ideal for 115

cultivation. Areas having high rainfall, humidity and poor drainage are not suitable. Light or medium loamy soils with adequate drainage and pH varying from 7.0-8.2 are preferable. In South India both summer and winter crops are possible. The plant is propagated by seeds. The seed rate required is 15-20kg/ha. Seeds are sown in October-November (winter rainfed crop) or in February-March (irrigated crop). Higher seed rate is required for unirrigated crop. Seeds are sown in lines 30cm apart. Application of 5-10t of FYM/ha before planting or raising a green manure crop is beneficial. About 40kg N and 25-50kg P2O5/ha applied as basal dressing and 40kg N/ha applied in 2 split dozes as top dressing gave better yield. While the rainfed crop is grown without irrigation, the irrigated crop requires 5-8 light irrigations during the entire growing season. The crop requires 2-3 weedings and hoeings in order to keep it free from weeds. Alternaria alternata causes leaf spot and dieback but the disease is not serious. In North India, the plant is attacked by the larvae of butterfly Catopsilia pyranthe which can be controlled by planting the crop in March-April instead of June-July. Under irrigated conditions, the first crop is obtained after 90 days of planting. The leaves are stripped by hand when they are fully green, thick and bluish-green in colour. The second crop is taken 4 weeks after the first harvest and the third 4-6 weeks after the second one. The last harvest of leaves is done when the entire crop is harvested along with the pods. Yield under irrigated conditions is nearly1.4t of leaves and 150kg pods/ha and under unirrigated conditions is 500-600kg leaves and 80-100kg pods/ha. The leaves are dried in thin layers under shade so as to retain the green colour and the pods are hung for 10-12 days to get dried. The leaves and pods are cleaned, graded and marketed (Husain et al, 1993).

Properties and Activity Leaves contain glucose, fructose, sucrose and pinnitol. Mucilage consists of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid. Leaves also contain sennosideC(8,8’-diglucoside of rhein-aloe-emodin-dianthrone). Pods contain sennosides A and B, glycoside of anthraquinones rhein and chrysophanic acid. Seeds contain -sitosterol (Husain et al, 1992). Leaves and pods also contain 0.33% -sterol and flavonolskaempferol, kaempferin, and iso-rhamnetin. Sennoside content of C. acutifolia is higher ranging from 2.5% to 4.5% as compared to C. angustifolia ranging from 1.5 % to 2.5%. The purgative activity of Senna is attributed to its sennosides. The pods cause lesser griping than the leaves. Leaf and pod is laxative. The leaves are astringent, bitter, sweet, acrid, thermogenic, cathartic, depurative, liver tonic, anthelmintic, cholagogue, expectorant and febrifuge.

116

NAGADANTI San: Danti;

Baliospermum montanum

Hin: Danti;

Mal: Danti, Nagadanti;

Euphorbiaceae

Tam: Nakatanti;

Tel: Nelajidi

Importance Danti or Nagadanti is a stout undershrub with numerous flowers. Root, which is the officinal part, is used in abdominal pain, constipation, calculus, general anasarca, piles, helminthic manifestations, scabies, skin disorders, suppurative ulcers and diseases caused by the morbidity of kapha and pitta. Root paste is applied to painful swellings and piles. Leaves cure asthma and seeds are used in snakebite (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma, 1983). The drug forms an important constituent of preparations like Dantyarishta, Dantiharitakileham, Kaisoraguggulu gulika, etc.(Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Distribution The plant is found throughout the sub-Himalayan tracts from Kashmir to Khasi Hills. It is common in West Bengal, Bihar and Central and Peninsular India.

Botany Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell-Arg. syn. B. axillare Bl., B. polyandrum Wt. belongs to the family Euphrobiaceae. It is a stout under-shrub 0.9-1.8m in height with herbaceous branches from the roots. Leaves are simple, sinuate-toothed, upper ones small, lower ones large and sometimes palmately 3-5 lobed. Flowers are numerous, arranged in axillary racemes with male flowers above and a few females below. Fruits are capsules, 813mm long and obovoid. Seeds are ellipsoid smooth and mottled (Warrier et al,1993).

Agrotechnology The tropical plant is suited to almost all soils. It can be cultivated either as pure crop or intercrop. It is propagated vegetatively by cuttings. About 15-20cm long rooted cuttings are used for planting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and top soil and formed into a mound. On these mounds, rooted cuttings are to be planted at 2 cuttings/mound. Cuttings establish within one month. Weeding is to be carried out at this time. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is beneficial. Irrigation during summer months is preferable. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Roots can be collected at the end of second year. The roots are to be cut and dried in sun before marketing. The yield is about one tonne root/ha (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and Activity Roots contain diterpenes, baliospermin, montanin, phorbol-12-deoxy-13-Opalmitate, phorbol-12-deoxy-16-hydroxy-13-O-palmitate and phorbol-12-deoxy-5hydroxy-13 –myristate (Ogura et al, 1978). Alcoholic extract of plant showed hypotensive activity in experimental animals (Bhakuni et al, 1971). Antilukaemic and cytotoxic activities have been demonstrated in the esters of both 12-deoxyphorbol and 12-deoxy-16hydroxyphorbol, isolated from B. montanum (King-horn, 1979). The roots are acrid, thermogenic, purgative, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, anthelmintic, diuretic, diaphoretic, rubefacient, febrifuge and tonic. Seed is purgative, stimulant, rubefacient and antidote for snakebite. Seed oil is antirheumatic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and wound healing. Root and seed oil is cathartic and antidropsical. Stem is anti-dontalgic.

117

PURGING CROTON

Croton tiglium

San: Jepalah, Dantibijah Hin: Jamalgota Tam: Nervalam, Sevalamkottai Tel: Nepala

Ben: Jaypal

Euphorbiaceae Mal: Nirvalam

Importance Purging croton or croton oil plant, a small evergreen tree with separate male and female flowers, is one among the seven poisons described in Ayurveda. The drug is well known for its drastic purgative property. The drug is found to be useful in ascites, anasarca, cold, cough, asthma, constipation, calculus, dropsy, fever and enlargement of the abdominal viscera. The seed paste is a good application for skin diseases, painful swellings and alopacia. The seed-oil is useful in chronic bronchitis, laryngeal affections, arthritis and lock jaw. Misraka-sneham is an important preparation using the drug (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980; Sharma, 1983).

Distribution It is distributed throughout North India. It is cultivated in Assam, West Bengal and South India.

Botany Croton tiglium Linn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is a small evergreen tree, 4.56.0m in height with ash coloured smooth bark and young shoots sprinkled with stellate hairs. Leaves are oblong to ovate-lanceolate, obtuse or rounded at the 2-glanded box, acuminate, membraneous, yellowish green and minutely toothed. Flowers are small, unisexual, males on slender pedicels, females larger and on short thick pedicels. Fruits are ovoid or oblong trigonous capsules. Seeds are smooth, testa black and enclosing reddish brown oily endosperm (Warrier et al,1994). Other species belonging to the genus Croton are as follows: C. aromaticus Linn. C. caudatus Geisel C. jouera Roxb. C. malabaricus Bedd. C. oblongifolius Roxb. C. polyandrus Roxb. syn. Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg. C. reticulatus(Chopra et al, 1980)

Agrotechnology The plant is propagated by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and about 2 months old seedlings are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and formed into a mound. The seedlings are to be planted on these mounds. Irrigation during summer months is beneficial. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is desirable. Weeding is to be carried out one month after transplanting. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Fruits are formed at the end of first year. Fruits when ripen and start to crack are to be collected, dried in sun, then the outer shell is removed and again dried for one day before marketing (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and activity Oil contains phorbol myristate acetate ( Husain et al, 1992). Seeds contain upto 20% protein and 30-50% lipids. Iso-guanine-D-ribose (crotoniside) and saccharose were isolated from the seeds. In fractionation of croton oil, liquid-liquid distribution procedures proved to be the separation tools of choice. The per hydrogenated parent hydrocarbon of phorbol is a perhydrocyclopropabenzulene called tigliane and phorbol is 1, 1a, 1b, 4, 4a, 7a, 7b, 8, 9, 9adecahydro-4a, 7, 9, 9a-tetrahydroxy-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1, 1, 6, 8 tetramethyl-5-Hcyclopropa[3,4] benz [1.2-e]azulen-5-one. Phorbol, a tetracylic diterpene with a 5, 7, 6 and 3membered ring has 6 oxygen functions. Phorbol accounts for 3.4% and 4- deoxy- 4- phorbol for 0.29% of the weight of croton oil. Twenty-five phorbol-12, 13-diesters have been detected (Hecker et al, 1974). A toxin croton 1, mol. wt 72,000 has been isolated from the seeds (Lin et al, 1978). Phorbol myristate acetate activates nitroblue tetrazolium reduction in human polymorphs. Seed and oil is purgative, rubefacient and anti-dote for snakebite. The seeds and oil are acrid, bitter, thermogenic, emollient, drastic purgative, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, vermifuge, deterent, diaphoretic, expectorant, vesicant, irritant and rubefacient.

118

ALSTONIA San: Visaghni, Anadana;

Alstonia venenata Mal: Analivegam;

Tam: Sinnappalai;

Apocynaceae Kan: Addasarpa

Importance Alstonia is a large shrub with straight bole and growing upto about 6m height. The roots are useful in skin diseases, erysipelas, leprosy, cobra bite and other venomous bites, epilepsy, fatigue, fever and otalgia. The fruits are useful in syphilis, insanity and epilepsy. The plant is believed to repel snakes.

Distribution The plant is distributed throughout India in deciduous forests in areas up to 1800m elevation.

Botany Alstonia venenata R.Br., belonging to the family Apocynaceae, is a large shrub to small tree up to 6m in height with greyish brown bark and bright yellow hard and woody root. Leaves are simple, arranged in whorls of 3-6, membranous, lanceolate, margins wavy, finely acuminate, main nerves numerous, close, parallel and united by inter marginal nerve. Flowers are white, arranged in terminal sub umbellate cymes or in racemes. Fruits are fusiform with stalked and beaked follicles, tapering at both ends. Seeds are many flattened with a tuft of hair at each end (Warrier et al, 1993). Other important species belonging to the genus Alstonia are the following.

1. A. scholaris R. Br. This tree is common throughout India. The bark is valuable in debility and after effects of fever, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery and catarrhal fever. The milky juice is applied to ulcers and rheumatic pains, mixed with oil and dropped into ear to relieve earache. Ditanin is the active principle of the bark, possessing powerful febrifuge properties. The bark is astringent, tonic and febrifuge (Nadkarni, 1998).

2. A. spectabilis R. Br. It is a large evergreen tree seen in tropical forests of Andamans. The bark contains alkaloids such as alstonamine, ditamine, echitamine and echitenine (Chopra et al,1980)

Agrotechnology The plant is propagated mainly by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and germinated ones are to be transferred to polybags. About three months old seedlings are used for transplanting. If seeds are not available, thin stem cuttings can be planted in polybags and rooted cuttings used. Pits of size 60cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing, filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and made into a mound. To this mounds seedlings from polybags are to be transplanted. Irrigation is essential during early stages of growth. Application of organic manure every year is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be done. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Flowers are formed in the first year itself. It can be used for medicinal purposes after seven years of growth. Fruits and roots are the economical parts (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and Activity The plant is a rich source of indole alkaloids. Alkaloids are present in various parts. Stem bark and root contain venenatine, alstovenine, 3-dehydroalstovenine and reserpine. Stem bark contains venoxidine (venenatine Nb-oxide), anhydroalstonatine, kopsinine, venalstonine, venalstonidine(venalstonine-6,7-epoxide), echitovenine and veneserpine. Fruits contain echitovenidine, (+)minovincinine, echitoserpidine, echitoserpine, echitoveniline, 11-methoxy echitovonidine, 11-methoxy (-) minovinicinine, echitoserpiline, (-)vincadifformine, 11-methoxy()vincadifformine and venoterpine. Leaves contain echitovenaldine, echitoveniline, alstolenine, deacetylakuammiline, polynuridine, dihydropolynuridine and raucaffrininoline. The yellow tint in bark is because of the presence of 3-alstovenine. A number of indole alkaloids have been further isolated from the plant. In addition to alkaloids fruits contain -amyrin acetate and lupeol ester of -hydroxy acid (Husain et al,1992). The root is bitter, astringent, thermogenic, depurative, antitoxic, febrifuge and anodyne. The alkaloid alstovenine in lower doses exhibited monoamine oxidase inhibitor activity, while in higher doses it showed marked central stimulant effect. Veninatine exhibited reserpine like activity. Alcoholic extract of the fruits showed initial activation effect on acetylcholine esterase, followed alternately by inhibition and activation of the enzyme.

119

HOLOSTEMMA

Holostemma ada-kodien

Asclepiadaceae

San: Jivanti; Hin: Chirvel, Charivel; Mal: Atapathiyan, Atapotiyan, Atakotiyan; Tam: Palaikkirai; Tel: Palagurugu; Mar: Dudurli, Shidodi; Guj: Kharner, Khiravel

Importance Holostemma is a twining shrub with large flowers. The roots of Holostemma are useful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, cough, burning sensation, stomachalgia, constipation, fever and tridoshas. The leaves, flowers and fruits are eaten as vegetable. The root is also used in spermatorrhoea. It is used in preparations of Vidaryadiganam, Dhanwandharam thaila, Manasamithravatakam, Balarishta and Anuthaila. It is also useful in eye diseases and it imparts resistance to diseases.

Distribution The plant occurs in tropical countries. In India, it is found in Himalayas, Dehradun, Konkan, Bombay, Deccan, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu. It grows over hedges and in open forests especially on the lower slopes of the hills. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka, Burma and W. China.

Botany Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. syn. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum., Holostemma rheedii Wall. belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. It is a laticiferous twining shrub with large conspicuous flowers. Leaves are simple, opposite and cordate. Flowers are purple, arranged in axillary umbellate cymes. Fruits are thick follicles, 9 cm long, cylindrical and bluntly pointed. The roots are long upto 1 m or more, irregularly twisted, thick and cylindrical. When dry it is yellowish brown to brown black in colour with nearly smooth surface bearing white scars and small depressions. A mature root is about 1-2 cm thick when extracted for use (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology Holostemma prefers a tropical climate. The plant is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings, but mainly by seeds. The seeds are collected from the plant in NovemberDecember before being dispersed. Seeds are cleaned, dried and stored for sowing. The stored seeds after soaking in water for 4-5 hours are sown in the seedbeds. About one month old seedlings are then planted in polybags of size 14x10cm which are filled with soil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio, respectively. Polybags should be kept in shade and irrigated. About 1-1.5 month old seedlings are ready for transplanting. Pits of 30cm cube size are taken at 1-1.2m distance and filled with 10kg dried cowdung and sand. This is covered with surface soil and formed into a mound. Seedlings are transplanted on to the mounds from the polybags carefully. Regular irrigation is to be given till flowering. To aid in trailing, staking is given one month after planting. Flowering and fruiting occurs in November-December. Harvesting can be done at the end of second year when the vines start drying up. Harvesting is done by digging up the tubers. The tubers are cut into pieces of 10cm length and dried in sun before sale (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity Holostemma tubers give -amyrin, lupeol and -sitosterol. Alanine, aspartic acid, glycine, serine, threonine and valine were detected chromatographically (Hussain et al, 1992). The root is antidiabetic, antigonorrhoeic, bechic, alterative, tonic, lactative, ophthalmic, emollient, stimulant, aphrodisiac, expectorant and galactagogue.

120

ASHOKA San:Asoka, Gatasokah; Tam: Asogam;

Saraca asoca

Caesalpiniaceae

Hin:Asok, Asoka; Ben:Ashok; Mal:Asokam; Kan:Asokada, Aksunkara; Tel: Asokamu, Vanjalamu

Importance Ashoka, the sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists, possesses varied medicinal uses. The bark is useful in dyspepsia, fever, dipsia, burning sensation, visceromegaly, colic, ulcers, menorrhagia, metropathy, leucorrhoea and pimples. The leaf juice mixed with cumin seeds is used for treating stomachalagia. The floweres are considered to be uterine tonic and are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, syphilis, cervical adinitis, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, haemorrhoids, dysentery, scabies in children and inflammation. The well-known Ayurvedic preparations are ”Ashokarishta” and “Ashokaghrita”. Ashokarishta is prescribed in leucorrhoea, haematuria, menorrhagia and other diseases of genitourinary system of females.

Distribution Ashoka is found almost throughout India, except North-Western India, upto 750m. It is also found in the Andaman Islands.

Botany Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde. syn. S. indica auct. non Linn. is a medium sized evergreen tree growing upto 9m height with numerous spreading and drooping glabrous branches. Leaves are pinnate, 30-60cm long having 2-3 pairs of lanceolate leaflets. Flowers are orange or orange yellow, arranged in dense corymbs and very fragrant. Fruits are flat black pods, leathery and compressed with 4-8 seeds/pod. Seeds are ellipsoid oblong and compressed. The bark is dark brown to grey or black with a warty surface. The thickness varies from 5mm to 10mm. The entire cut surface turns reddish on exposure to air. Polyalthia longifolia (Annonaceae) is equated with the name Asoka by some (Kapoor & Mitra, 1979; Chunekar, 1982) and is often used as an adulterant of the genuine Asoka bark or as a substitute (Warrier et al,1996).

Agrotechnology Asoka grows well in areas with well distributed rainfall and in slightly shady areas. Asoka requires soil rich in organic mater and moisture. The best season of planting is June-July. It is also grown in summer, if irrigation facilities are available. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are formed usually during February-April. Seeds are collected when they are ripen and fall down and are sown after soaking in water for 12 hours on the prepared beds. Seeds germinate within 20 days. The seeds are then planted in polybags. 2-month-old seedlings from the polybags are used for transplanting. Square shaped pits of 60cm depth are taken at 3m spacing and filled with topsoil, sand and dried cowdung. On this the seedlings are planted. Application of FYM at 10kg/tree/year is highly beneficial. Chemical fertilisers are not usually applied. Irrigation during summer months is essential. No serious pests or diseases are generally noted in this crop. If properly cultivated, Asoka can be cut after 20 years and the bark collected. It is cut at a height of 15cm from the soil level. If given irrigation and fertilisers, the cut wood will sprout again and harvested again after 5 years. This can be continued. When it is difficult to cut the tree, the bark can be peeled off from one side first. When the bark grows and cover that part, the other side can be peeled off. This is also continued (Prasad et al, 1997; Karshakasree, 1998).

Properties and Activity Flowers give -sitosterol, flavonoids and flavone glycosides-quercetin, kaempferol-3-O-D-glucoside, quercetin-3-O--D-glucoside. The anthocyanins present are pelargonidin-3, 5diglucoside and cyanadin-3, 5-diglucoside. Bark yields catechol and sterols-(24)-24-methyl cholest-5-en-3-ol, (22E, 24)-24-ethylcholesta-5, 22-dien-3 -ol and (24)-24-ethyl cholest-5-en3-ol, a wax containing n-alkanes, esters and free primary alcohols. Alcoholic extract and glycoside P2 from stem bark is oxytoxic. Aerial part is CNS active, hypothermic, CNS depressant and diuretic. Stem bark is anticancerous, has spasmodic action on rabbit intestine and cardiotonic action in frog and dog. Seed is antifungal. Stem bark is astringent, antileucorrhoeic, antibilious and uterine sedative. Flower is uterine tonic, antidiabetic and antisyphilitic. Stem bark and flower is antibilious (Husain et al, 1992).

121

GARDEN RUE

Ruta chalepensis

Rutaceae

San: Gucchapatra; Hin: Pismaram, Sadab, Satari; Ben: Ermul; Mal: Aruta, Nagatali; Tam: Aruvadam, Arvada; Kan: Sadabu, Nagadali; soppu, Simesdanu; Tel: Sadapa, Aruda Importance Common rue or Garden rue also known as Herb of Grace due to its service in the Roman Catholic Church for sprinkling the holy water among the congregation, is an aromatic perennial herb. The plant is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, strangury, fever, flatulence, colic, amenorrhoea, epilepsy and hysteria. The oil acts as a stimulant for uterine and nervous systems. The fresh leaves are used for rheumatalgia. The juice obtained from the leaves is given to children for helminthic infections and is good for odontalgia and otalgia (Warrier et al, 1996). The dried leaves, powdered and combined with aromatics, are given as a remedy for dyspepsia and with the fresh leaves a tincture is made which is used as an external remedy in the first stages of paralysis (Nadkarni, 1998).

Distribution The plant is a native of South Europe and it is found in subtropical countries. It is commonly cultivated in Indian gardens.

Botany Ruta chalepensis Linn.syn. R. graveolens Linn. var. angustifolia Sensu Hook. f. belongs to the family Rutaceae. It is an aromatic perennial herb growing upto 75cm height. Leaves are compound, shortly petiolate with ultimate segments oblong or obovate-oblong. Flowers are yellow. Fruits are capsules and shortly pedicelled (Warrier et al, 1996).

Agrotechnology The plant is suited to areas which are about 1000m above mean sea level and with moderate rainfall and sunlight. The plant can be propagated either by seeds or stem cuttings. Seeds are to be sown in seedbeds. Stem cuttings of length 20-25cm are to be planted in polybags for rooting. About 3-4 months old seedlings can be transplanted to pots and harvested when plants attain 6-8 months age. In highlands land is to be ploughed to a fine tilth, mixed with organic manure and seedlings are to be transplanted at a spacing of 45cm between plants. Irrigation is essential during summer months. Regular weeding is to be done. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests and diseases. Harvesting commences from sixth month onwards. The economic part is the whole plant and the oil extracted from it (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Roots contain coumarins-xanthyletin and (-)-byakangelicin. The alkaloids are rutacridone-epoxide, gravacridonol and its monomethyl ether, gravacridonchlorine, furacridone, 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylacridone, iso-gravacridonechlorine, dictamine, r-fragarine and skimmianine. Skimmianine is also present in leaves and stem. Leaves and stem also contain graveolinine (1-methyl-2(3’,4’-methylenedioxyphenol)-4-methoxyquinoline). Aerial parts give coumarins bergapten, xanthotoxin and psoralen. Coumarinimperatin has also been reported from the plant. Herb contains alkaloids such as kokusagenine, rutamine(methylgraveoline) and graveoline(1-methyl-2(3’,4’methylenedioxyphenyl)-4-quinoline). Tissue culture of the plant gives furacridone alkaloids-1-hydroxyrutacridone-epoxide, rutagravin and gravacridonol. Gravacridondiol and its glucoside have been obtained from the root tissue culture. The essential oil from leaves, stem and root yielded aliphatic ketones including 2-nonanone (10-35%), undecyl-2acetate (0.5-15%), 2-nonyl acetate (trace-10%), nonylacetate, nonanol, 2-nonylpropionate, 2-nonylpropionate, 2-undecanol and its esters. The oil from roots gave pregeijerene also. The plant is spasmolytic which is due to the presence of bergapten, xanthotoxin, the essential oil and a coumarin. It is also antispasmodic, emmenagogue, irritant, abortifacient and anti-bacterial. Leaf is analgesic, antirheumatic, antihysteric and anthelmintic (Husain et al, 1992). 122

GREEN CHIRETTA San: Bhunimbah, Kiratatiktah Mal: Nilaveppu, Kiriyattu

Andrographis paniculata

Acanthaceae

Hin: Kakamegh, Kalpanath Tam: Nilavempu

Ben: Kalmegh Kan: Kreata

Importance Kalmegh, the Great or Green Chiretta is a branched annual herb. It is useful in hyperdipsia, burning sensation, wounds, ulcers, chronic fever, malarial and intermittent fevers, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, skin diseases, leprosy, pruritis, intestinal worms, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al, 1993). It is used to overcome sannipata type of fever, difficulty in breathing, hemopathy due to the morbidity of kapha and pitta, burning sensation, cough, oedema, thirst, skin diseases, fever, ulcer and worms. It is also useful in acidity and liver complaints (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1962). The important preparations using the drug are Tiktakagheta, Gorocandi gulika, Candanasava, Panchatiktam kasaya, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). A preparation called “Alui” is prepared by mixing powdered cumin (Cuminium cyminum) and large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) in the juice of this plant and administered for the treatment of malaria (Thakur et al, 1989). It is also a rich source of minerals.

Distribution The plant is distributed throughout the tropics. It is found in the plains of India from U.P to Assam, M.P., A.P, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, also cultivated in gardens.

Botany Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall ex. Nees belongs to the family Acanthaceae. It is an erect branched annual herb, 0.3-0.9m in height with quadrangular branches. Leaves are simple, lanceolate, acute at both ends, glabrous, with 4-6 pairs of main nerves. Flowers are small, pale but blotched and spotted with brown and purple distant in lax spreading axillary and terminal racemes or panicles. Calyx-lobes are glandular pubescent with anthers bearded at the base. Fruits are linear capsules and acute at both ends. Seeds are numerous, yellowish brown and sub-quadrate (Warrier et al,1993). Another species of Andrographis is A. echioides (Linn.) Nees. It is found in the warmer parts of India. The plant is a febrifuge and diuretic. It contains flavone-echiodinin and its glucoside-echioidin (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology The best season of planting Andrographis is May-June. The field is to be ploughed well, mixed with compost or dried cowdung and seedbeds of length 3m, breadth 1/2m and 15cm height are to be taken at a distance of 3m. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are to be soaked in water for 6 hours before sowing. Sowing is to be done at a spacing of 20cm. Seeds may germinate within 15-20 days. Two weedings, first at one month after planting and the second at 2 month after planting are to be carried out. Irrigation during summer months is beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Flowering commences from third month onwards. At this stage, plant are to be collected, tied into small bundles and sun-dried for 4-5 days. Whole plant is the economic part and the yield is about 1.25t dried plants/ha (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Leaves contain two bitter substances lactone “andrographolid” and “kalmeghin”. The ash contains sodium chloride and potassium salts. Plant is very rich in chlorophyte. Kalmeghin is the active principle that contains 0.6% alkaloid of the crude plant. The plant contains diterpenoids, andrographolide, 14-deoxy-11-oxo-andrographolide, 14-deoxy11,12-dihydroandrographolide, 14-deoxy andrographolide and neoandrographolide (Allison et al, 1968). The roots give flavones-apigenin-7,4-dio-O-methyl ether, 5-hydroxy-7,8,2’,3’tetramethoxyflavone, andrographin and panicolin and -sitosterol (Ali et al, 1972;

123

Govindachari et al, 1969). Leaves contain homoandrographolide, andrographosterol and andrographone. The plant is vulnerary, antipyretic, antiperiodic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, depurative, sudorific, anthelmintic, digestive, stomachic, tonic, febrifuge and cholagogue. The plant is antifungal, antityphoid, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic and cholinergic. Shoot is antibacterial and leaf is hypotensive(Garcia et al, 1980). This is used for the inflammation of the respiratory tract. In China, researchers have isolated the andrographolide from which soluble derivative such as 14-deoxy-11, 12-dehydro-andrographolide which forms the subject of current pharmacological and clinical studies. Apigenin 7,4’-O-dimethyl ether isolated from A. paniculata exhibits dose dependent, antiulcer activity in shay rat, histamine induced ulcer in guinea pigs and aspirin induced ulcers in rats. A crude substance isolated from methanolic extract of leaves has shown hypotensive activity. Pre-treatment of rats with leaf (500mg/kg) or andrographolide (5mg/kg) orally prevented the carbon tetrachloride induced increase of blood serum levels of glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase in liver and prevented hepatocellular membrane.

124

WORM KILLER

Aristolochia bracteolata

San: Kitamari Hin: Kiramar, Kitamar Tam: Atutinnappalai

Aristolochiaceae

Mal: Attuthottappala, Atuthinnappala

Importance The bracteated birthwort or worm killer is a perennial prostrate herb. As the name suggests it is a killer of intestinal worms especially roundworms. It is also used in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, constipation, inflammations, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, foul ulcers, boils, syphilis, gonorrhoea, dyspepsia, colic, skin diseases, eczema, artheralgia and intermittent fevers. The plant is an insect repellent due to the presence of aristolochic acid, which is poisonous to man and livestock. Plant is also used against scorpion sting. Seeds ground in water to form a lotion and used for softening hair. Powdered root is used in fertility control.

Distribution The plant is found in Sri Lanka, Arabian countries and tropical Africa. In India, the plant is grown in Deccan and Carnatic Plateau.

Botany Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. syn. A. bracteata Retz. belongs to the family Aristolochiaceae. It is a perennial prostrate herb with weak, glabrous stems. Leaves are simple, alternate, reniform or broadly ovate, cordate at the base with a wide sinus upto 7.5cm in diameter, reticulately veined. Flowers are solitary with a large sessile orbicular bract at the base. Perianth tube is cylindric with dark purple tip having revolute margins. Fruits are oblong-ellipsoid 12-ribbed glabrous capsules. Seeds are deltoid with slightly cordate base (Warrier et al, 1993) Another important species belonging to the genus Aristolochia is A. indica Linn. The plant grows wild throughout the low hills and plains of India from Nepal to West Bengal and South India. It is a valuable anti-dote to snake bite and to bites of poisonous insects as scorpion, etc. It is given in cases of cholera and diarrhoea after macerating with black pepper corns. The juice of the leaves has stimulant, tonic and antiperiodic properties.

Agrotechnology Shady areas and well-drained soils are most suited to Aristolochia. The plant can be seed propagated. 3-month-old seedlings raised in polybags are required for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at a distance of 3m and filled with sand, topsoil and dried cowdung. To these pits, the seedlings are to be transplanted. Regular irrigation and organic manure application is beneficial. The plant is to be trailed on iron wires tied to poles. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Plant attains good spread within one year. Leaves can be collected for the next 10 years. Roots and leaves constitute the economic parts (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Leaves and fruits yield ceryl alcohol, -sitosterol and aristolochic acid. Root contains aristolochic acid. Seeds give an alkaloid magnoflorine, aristolochic acid, fatty oil comprising palmitic, stearic, lignoseric and oleic acids and -sitosterol. The plant is anthelmintic, cathartic, antiperiodic and emmenagogue. Leaf is antigonorrhoeic, larvicidal and used in eczema on children’s leg and ulcers. The plant is oxytocic (Husain et al,1992).

125

FICUS

Ficus spp.

Moraceae

The genus Ficus constitutes an important group of trees with immense medicinal value. It is a sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists. Among the varied number of species, the most important ones are the four trees that constitute the group “Nalpamaram”, namely, F .racemosa, F. microcarpa, F. benghalensis and F. religiosa (Athi, Ithi, Peral and Arayal respectively).

1. Ficus racemosa Linn. syn. F. glomerata Roxb. Eng: Cluster fig, Country fig San: Udumbarah, Sadaphalah Hin: Gular, Umar Ben: Jagya dumur Mal, Tam, Kan: Athi Tel: Udambaramu, Paidi Gular fig, Cluster fig or Country fig, which is considered sacred, has golden coloured exudate and black bark. It is distributed all over India. Its roots are useful in treating dysentery. The bark is useful as a wash for wounds, highly efficacious in threatened abortions and recommended in uropathy. Powdered leaves mixed with honey are given in vitiated condition of pitta. A decoction of the leaves is a good wash for wounds and ulcers. Tender fruits (figs) are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, diarrhoea, dyspepsia and haemorrhages. The latex is administered in haemorrhoids and diarrhoea (Warrier et al, 1995). The ripe fruits are sweet, cooling and are used in haemoptysis, thirst and vomiting (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer et al, 1957; Moos, 1976). Nalpamaradi coconut oil, Candanasava, Valiya Arimedastaila, Dinesavalyadi Kuzhambu, Abhrabhasma, Valiya candanaditaila, etc. are some important preparations using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994). It is a moderate to large-sized spreading laticiferous, deciduous tree without many prominent aerial roots. Leaves are dark green and ovate or elliptic. Fruit receptacles are 2-5cm in diameter, sub-globose or pyriform arranged in large clusters on short leafless branches arising from main trunk or large branches. Figs are smooth or rarely covered with minute soft hairs. When ripe, they are orange, dull reddish or dark crimson. They have a pleasant smell resembling that of cedar apples. The bark is rusty brown with a fairly smooth and soft surface, the thickness varying from 0.5-2cm according to the age of the trunk or bark. Surface is with minute separating flakes of white tissue. Texture is homogeneously leathery (Warrier et al, 1995). Stem-bark gives gluanol acetate, -sitosterol, leucocyanidin-3-O--D-glucopyrancoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O--D-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin -3-O--L-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, ceryl behenate, lupeol acetate and -amyrin acetate. Stem- bark is hypoglycaemic and antiprotozoal. Gall is CVS active. Bark is tonic and used in rinder pest diseases of cattle. Root is antidysenteric and antidiabetic. Leaf is antibilious. Latex is antidiarrhoeal and used in piles. Bark and syconium is astringent and used in menorrhagia (Husain et al, 1992).

2. Ficus microcarpa Linn. f. syn. F. retusa auct. Non. Linn. San: Plaksah; Hin, Ben: Kamarup; Mal: Ithi, Ithiyal; Tam: Kallicci, Icci; Kan: Itti; Tel: Plaksa Plaksah is the Ficus species with few branches and many adventitious roots growing downward. It is widely distributed throughout India and in Sri Lanka, S. China, Ryuku Isles and Britain. Plakasah is one of the five ingredients of the group panchvalkala i.e, five barks, the decoction of which is extensively used to clear ulcers and a douche in leucorrhoea in children. This decoction is administered externally and internally with satisfactory results. Plaksah is acclaimed as cooling, astringent, and curative of raktapitta doshas, ulcers, skin diseases, burning sensation, inflammation and oedema. It is found to have good healing property and is used in preparation of oils and ointments for external application in the treatment of ulcers (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957). The stem-bark is used to prepare Usirasava, Gandhataila, Nalpamaradi taila, Valiya marmagulika, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The bark and leaves are used in wounds, ulcers, bruises, flatulent colic, hepatopathy, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, haemaorrhages, erysipelas, dropsy, ulcerative stomatitis, haemoptysis, psychopathy, leucorrhoea and coporrhagia (Warrier et al,1995) F. microcarpa is a large glabrous evergreen tree with few aerial roots. Leaves are shortpetioled, 5-10cm long, 2-6cm wide and apex shortly and bluntly apiculate or slightly emarginate. Main lateral nerves are not very prominent and stipules are lanceolate. Fruit receptacles are sessile and globose occurring in axillary pairs. It is yellowish when ripe without any characteristic smell. Bark is dark grey or brown with a smooth surface except for the lenticels. Outer bark is corky and crustaceous thin and firmly adherent to inner tissue. Inner bark is light and flesh coloured with firbrous texture (Warrier et al, 1995). It is also equated with many other species of the genus. viz. 126

F. infectoria Roxb., F. arnottiana Miq, F. lacor Buch-Ham and F. talboti King (cf. Nadkarni, 1954, Singh and Chunekar, 1972; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979; Sharma, 1983). The bark contains tannin, wax and saponin. Bark is antibilious. Powdered leaves and bark is found very good in rheumatic headache. The bark and leaves are astringent, refrigerant, acrid and stomachic.

3. Ficus benghalensis Linn. Eng: Banyan tree; San: Nyagrodhah, Vatah; Hin: Bat, Bargad; Ben: Bar, Bot; Mar: Vada; Mal: Peral, Vatavriksham; Tam: Alamaram, Peral; Kan: Ala; Tel: Peddamarri; Guj: Vad Banyan tree is a laticiferous tree with reddish fruits, which is wound round by aerial adventitious roots that look like many legs. It is found in the Sub-Himalayan tract and Peninsular India. It is also grawn throughout India. It is widely used in treatment of skin diseases with pitta and rakta predominance. Stem-bark, root -bark, aerial roots, leaves, vegetative buds and milky exudate are used in medicine. It improves complexion, cures erysepelas, burning sensation and vaginal disorders, while an infusion of the bark cures dysentery, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, nervous disorders and reduces blood sugar in diabetes. A decoction of the vegetative buds in milk is beneficial in haemorrhages. A paste of the leaves is applied externally to abcesses and wounds to promote suppuration, while that of young aerial roots cure pimples. Young twigs when used as a tooth brush strengthen gum and teeth (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss,1976). The drug forms an important constituent of formulations like Nalpamaradi Coconut oil, Saribadyasava, Kumkumadi taila, Khadira gulika, Valiyacandanadi taila, Candanasava, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The aerial roots are useful in obstinate vomiting and leucorrhoea and are used in osteomalacia of the limbs. The buds are useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. The latex is useful in neuralgia, rheumatism, lumbago, bruises, nasitis, ulorrhagia, ulitis, odontopathy, haemorrhoids, gonorrhoea, inflammations, cracks of the sole and skin diseases (Warrier et al, 1995). It is a very large tree up to 30m in height with widely spreading branches bearing many aerial roots functioning as prop roots. Bark is greenish white. Leaves are simple, alternate, arranged often in clusters at the ends of branches. They are stipulate, 10-20cm long and 5-12.5cm broad, broadly elliptic to ovate, entire, coriaceous, strongly 3-7 ribbed from the base. The fruit receptacles are axillary, sessile, seen in pairs globose, brick red when ripe and enclosing male, female and gall flowers. Fruits are small, crustaceous, achenes, enclosed in the common fleshy receptacles. The young bark is somewhat smooth with longitudinal and transverse row of lenticels. In older bark, the lenticels are numerous and closely spaced; outer bark easily flakes off. The fresh cut surface is pink or flesh coloured and exudes plenty of latex. The inner most part of the bark adjoining the wood is nearly white and fibrous (Warrier et al, 1995). The bark yields flavanoid compounds A, B and C; A and C are identified as different forms of a leucoanthocyanidin and compound B a leucoanthocyanin. All the 3 were effective as hypoglycaemic agents. Leaves give friedelin, -sitosterol, flavonoids- quercetin-3-galactoside and rutin. Heart wood give tiglic acid ester of  taraxasterol. Bark is hypoglycemic, tonic, astringent, antidiarrhoeal and antidiabetic. Latex is antirheumatic. Seed is tonic. Leaf is diaphoretic. Root fibre is antigonorrhoeic. Aerial root is used in debility and anaemic dysentery (Husain et al, 1992).

.4. Ficus religiosa Linn. Eng:Peepal tree, Sacred fig; San:Pippalah, Asvatthah; Hin:Pippal, Pipli, Pipar; Mal:Arayal Ben: Asvatha; Tam: Arasu, Asvattam; Kan: Aswatha; Tel: Ravi; Mar: Ashvata, Pimpala Peepal tree or Sacred fig is a large deciduous tree with few or no aerial roots. It is common throughout India, often planted in the vicinity of the temples. An aqueous extract of the bark has an antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. It is used in the treatment of gonorrhoea, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids and gastrohelcosis. A paste of the powdered bark is a good absorbent for inflammatory swellings. It is also good for burns. Leaves and tender shoots have purgative properties and are also recommended for wounds and skin diseases. Fruits are laxative and digestive. The dried fruit pulverized and taken in water cures asthma. Seeds are refrigerant and laxative. The latex is good for neuralgia, inflammations and haemorrhages (Warrier et al, 1995). Decoction of the bark if taken in honey subdues vatarakta (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). The important

127

preparations using the drug are Nalpamaradi taila, Saribadyasava, Candanasava, Karnasulantaka, Valiyamarma gulika etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994). It is a large deciduous tree with few or no aerial roots. It is often epiphytic with the drooping branches bearing long petioled, ovate, cordate shiny leaves. Leaves are bright green, the apex produced into a linear-lanceolate tail about half as long as the main portion of the blade. The receptacles occurring in pairs and are axillary, depressed globose, smooth and purplish when ripe. The bark is grey or ash coloured with thin or membranous flakes and is often covered with crustose lichen patches. The outer bark is not of uniform thickness, the middle bark in sections appear as brownish or light reddish brown. The inner part consists of layers of light yellowish or orange brown granular tissue (Warrier et al, 1995). Bark gives -sitosterol and its glucoside. Bark is hypoglycaemic. Stem bark is antiprotozoal, anthelmintic and antiviral. Bark is astringent, antigonorrheic, febrifuge, aphrodisiac and antidysenteric. Syconium, leaf and young shoot is purgative (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology Ficus species can be cultivated in rocky areas, unused lands, or other wastelands of the farmyard. The plant is vegetatively propagated by stem cuttings. A few species are also seed propagated. Stem cuttings of pencil thickness taken from the branches are to be kept for rooting. Rooted cuttings are to be transplanted to prepared pits. No regular manuring is required. Irrigation is not a must as a plant is hardy. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Bark can be collected after 15 years. Ficus species generally has an economic life span of more than hundred years. Hence bark can be regularly collected from the tree. Root, bark, leaves, fruits and latex form the economic parts (Prasad et al,1995).

128

WEST INDIAN MEDLAR San: Bakulah

Mimusops elengi

Hin: Bakul, Maulsiri

Tam: Magilam, Ilanci Barsoli, Bolsari

Tel: Pogada

Ben: Bakul

Sapotaceae Mal: Ilanji, Elanji

Kan: Pagademara Guj:

Importance Spanish cherry, West Indian Medlar or Bullet wood tree is an evergreen tree with sweet-scented flowers having ancient glamour. Garlands made of its flowers are ever in good demand due to its long lasting scent. Its bark is used as a gargle for odontopathy, ulitis and ulemorrhagia. Tender stems are used as tooth brushes. It is also useful in urethrorrhoea, cystorrhoea, diarrhoea and dysentery. Flowers are used for preparing a lotion for wounds and ulcers. Powder of dried flowers is a brain tonic and is useful as a snuff to relieve cephalgia. Unripe fruit is used as a masticatory and will help to fix loose teeth. Seeds are used for preparing suppositories in cases of constipation especially in children (Warrier et al,1995). The bark and seed coat are used for strengthening the gum and enter into the composition of various herbal tooth powders, under the name of “Vajradanti”, where they may be used along with tannin-containing substances like catechu (Acacia catechu), pomegranate (Punica granatum) bark, etc. The bark is used as snuff for high fever accompanied by pains in various parts of the body. The flowers are considered expectorant and smoked in asthma. A lotion prepared from unripe fruits and flowers is used for smearing on sores and wounds. In Ayurveda, the important preparation of Mimusops is “Bakuladya Taila”, applied on gum and teeth for strengthening them, whereas in Unani system, the bark is used for the diseases of genitourinary system of males (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution It is cultivated in North and Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. It is grown as an avenue tree in many parts of India.

Botany Mimusops elengi Linn. belongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is an evergreen tree with dark grey fissured bark and densely spreading crown. Leaves are oblong, glabrous and leathery with wavy margins. Flowers are white, fragrant, axillary, solitary or fascicled. Fruits are ovoid or ellipsoid berries. Seeds are 1-2 per fruit, ovoid, compressed, greyish brown and shiny (Warrier et al, 1995). Other important species belonging to the genus Mimusops are M. hexandra Roxb. and M. kauki Linn. syn. Manilkara kauki Dub.(Chopra et al, 1980).

Agrotechnology Mimusops prefers moist soil rich in organic matter for good growth. The plant is propagated by seeds. Fruits are formed in October-November. Seeds are to be collected and dried. Seeds are to be soaked in water for 12 hours without much delay and sown on seedbeds. Viability of seeds is less. After germination they are to be transferred to polybags. Pits of size 45cm cube are to be taken and filled with 5kg dried cowdung and top soil. To these pits, about 4 months old seedlings from the polybags are to be transplanted with the onset of monsoon. Addition of 10kg FYM every year is beneficial. Any serious pests or diseases do not attack the plant. Flowering commences from fourth year onwards. Bark, flowers, fruit and seeds are the economic parts.

Properties and Activity -sitosterol and its glucoside, -spina-sterol, quercitol, taraxerol and lupeol and its acetate are present in the aerial parts as well as the roots and seeds. The aerial parts in addition gave quercetin, dihydroquercetin, myricetin, glycosides, hederagenin, ursolic acid, hentriacontane and carotene. The bark contained an alkaloid consisting largely of a tiglate ester of a base with a mass spectrum identical to those of laburinine and iso-retronecanol and a saponin also which on hydrolysis gave -amyrin and brassic acid. Seed oil was comprised of capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, oleic and linoleic acids. Saponins from seed are spermicidal and spasmolytic. The aerial part is diuretic. Extract of flower (1mg/kg body weight) showed positive diuretic action in dogs. Bark is tonic and febrifuge. Leaf is an antidote for snakebite. Pulp of ripe fruit is antidysenteric. Seed is purgative. Bark and pulp of ripe fruit is astringent (Husain et al, 1992).

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CASTOR

Ricinus communis

San: Erandah, Pancangulah; Hin: Erandi, Erand; Tam: Amanakku, Kootaimuttu, Amanakkam Ceti; Tel: Erandamu, Amudamu

Euphorbiaceae Ben: Bherenda; Mal: Avanakku; Kan: Haralu, Manda, Oudla;

Importance Castor is a perennial evergreen shrub. The Sanskrit name erandah describes the property of the drug to dispel diseases. It is considered as a reputed remedy for all kinds of rheumatic affections. They are useful in gastropathy such as gulma, amadosa, constipation, inflammations, fever, ascitis, strangury, bronchitis, cough, leprosy, skin diseases, vitiated conditions of vata, colic, coxalgia and lumbago. The leaves are useful in burns, nyctalopia, strangury and for bathing and fermentation and vitiated conditions of vata, especially in rheumatoid arthritis, urodynia and arthralgia. Flowers are useful in urodynia and arthralgia and glandular tumours. Seeds are useful in dyspepsia and for preparing a poultice to treat arthralgia. The oil from seeds is a very effective purgative for all ailments caused by vata and kapha. It is also recommended for scrotocele, ascites, intermittent fever, gulma, colonitis, lumbago, coxalgia and coxitis (Warrier et al, 1996). Oil is also used for soap making. Fresh leaves are used by nursing mothers in the Canary Island as an external application to increase the flow of milk. Castor oil is an excellent solvent of pure alkaloids and as such solutions of atropine, cocaine, etc. is used in ophthalmic surgery. It is also dropped into the eye to remove the after-irritation caused by the removal of foreign bodies.

Distribution It is a native of N. E. tropical Africa. It is found throughout India, cultivated and found wild upto 2400m.

Botany Ricinus communis Linn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is a monoecious evergreen shrub growing upto 4m. Leaves are alternate, palmatifid, 6-10 lobed, each 1nerved with many lateral nerves and peltate. Lobes are lanceolate, thinly pubescent below, margin serrate and apex acuminate. Paniculate racemes are terminal with male flowers below, female ones above. Perianth is cupular, splitting into 3-5 lobes, laceolate, valvate, margin inrolled and acuminate. Filaments of stamen are connate and repeatedly branched with divergent anther cells. Sepals are 5, sub-equal, lanceolate, valvate and acute. Ovary is globose, echinate, 3-locular with 3 ovules and pendulous. Styles are 3, stout, papillose, stigmatiferous. Capsules are 3-lobed and prickly with oblong seeds having smooth testa and marbled, shiny and carunculate. R. bronze King and R. africanus are two good garden varieties which are known as Italian and East Indian Castors, respectively (Mathew, 1983, Grieve and Leyel, 1992).

Agrotechnology Castor is cultivated both in the plains and the hills. As it has deep root system it is hardy and capable of resisting drought. It does not withstand waterlogging and frost. It requires hard dry climate for proper development of fruits and seeds. It requires a welldrained soil, preferably sandy loam or loamy sand. High soil fertility is of less importance as compared to the good physical condition of the soil. It cannot tolerate alkalinity. It is generally grown in red loamy soils, black soils and alluvial soils. The plant is seed propagated. The seed rate required is 5-12 kg/ha (pure crop) and 3 kg/ha (mixed crop). Seeds are to be sown on a hot bed early in March. When the plants come up individual plant is to be planted in a separate pot filled with light soil and plunged into a fresh hot bed. 130

The young plants are to be kept in glass houses till early June where they are hardened and kept out. The suitable season of growing is kharif season. The crop is usually sown in April and planting is done in early July. The land is to be ploughed 2-3 times with the onset of rains and is repeated after rain. The spacing recommended is 60X90cm in case of pure crop but it is seldom cultivated pure. It is usually grown mixed with crops such as jowar, arhar, chilly, groundnut, cowpea, cotton, etc. 10-15t FYM/ha and 50kg N, 50kg P2O5 and 20kg K2O/ha will be sufficient. Addition of neem cake is beneficial as it increases oil content. There should be sufficient moisture in the field at the time of sowing. A month after planting, weeding and earthing up is to be done. The plant is attacked by hairy caterpillar, castor semi-looper, castor seed caterpillar, etc. which can be managed by integrated pest management measures. The leaf blight disease occurring in castor can be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture 2-3 times at 15 days interval. Harvesting of ripe fruits can be done from the end of November till the end of February. The fruit branches are picked when they are still green to avoid splitting and scattering of the seeds. The pods are to be heaped up in the sun to dry. Then the seeds are to be beaten with stick and winnowed. Roots, leaves, flowers, seeds and oil constitute the economic parts. The average yield is 500-600kg/ha (Thakur, 1990).

Properties and Activity The beancoat yielded lupeol and 30-norlupan-3-ol-20-one. Roots, stems and leaves contain several amino acids. Flowers gave apigenin, chlorogenin, rutin, coumarin and hyperoside. Castor oil is constituted by several fatty acids (Husain et al, 1992). Seed coat contained 1. 50-1. 62% lipids and higher amounts of phosphatides and non-saponifiable matter than seed kernel. Fresh leaves protected against liver injury induced by carbon tetra chloride in rats while cold aqueous extract provided partial protection (Rastogi et al, 1991). Root and stem is antiprotozoal and anticancerous. Root, stem and seed are diuretic. The roots are sweet, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, carminative, purgative, galactagogue, sudorific, expectorant and depurative. Leaves are diuretic, anthelmintic and galactagogue. Seeds are acrid, thermogenic, digestive, cathartic and aphrodisiac. Oil is bitter, acrid, sweet, antipyretic, thermogenic and viscous (Warrier et al, 1996). Castor oil forms a clean, lightcoloured soap, which dries and hardens well and is free from smell. The oil varies much in activity. The East Indian is the more active, but the Italian has the least taste. Castor oil is an excellent solvent of pure alkaloids. The oil furnishes sebacic acid and caprylic acid. It is the most valuable laxative in medicines. It acts in about 5 hours, affecting the entire length of the bowel, but not increasing the flow of bile, except in very large doses. The mode of its action is unknown. The oil will purge when rubbed into the skin (Grieve and Leyel, 1992).

131

CUCURBITS

Cucurbitaceae

The family Cucurbitaceae includes a large group of plants which are medicinally valuable. The important genera belonging to the family are Trichosanthes, Lagenaria, Luffa, Benincasa, Momordica, Cucumis, Citrullus, Cucurbita, Bryonopsis and Corallocarpus. The medicinally valuable species of these genera are discussed below.

1. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Eng: Wild Snake-gourd; San: Meki,Pargavi, Parvara, Patola; Hin: Palval, Parvar Ben: Potol; Mal: Kattupatavalam, Patolam; Tam: Kombuppudalai; Tel: Kommupotta Wild snake-gourd is a slender-stemmed, extensively climbing, more or less scabrous and woolly herb found throughout the plains of N. India, extending to Assam and W. Bengal. Tendrils are 2-4 fid. Leaves are 7.5x5cm in size, ovate-oblong, cordate, acute, sinuate-dentate, not lobed, rigid, rough on both surface and with a petiole of 2cm. Flowers are unisexual. Male flowers are not racemed but woolly outside. Calyx tube is 4.5cm long, narrow, teeth linear and erect. Anthers are free. Fruit is 5.9cm long, oblong or nearly spherical, acute, smooth and orange-red when ripe. Seeds are half-ellipsoid, compressed and corrugated on the margin (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The unripe fruit of this is generally used as a culinary vegetable and is considered very wholesome and specially suited for the convalescent. The tender shoots are given in decoction with sugar to assist digestion. The seeds are useful for disorders of the stomach. The leaf juice is rubbed over the chest in liver congestion and over the whole body in intermittent fevers (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruit is used as a remedy for spermatorrhoea. The fresh juice of the unripe fruit is often used as a cooling and laxative adjunct to some alterative medicines. In bilious fever, a decoction of patola leaves and coriander in equal parts is given. The fruit in combination with other drugs is prescribed in snakebite and scorpion sting (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Fruits contain free amino acids and 5-hydroxy tryptamine. Fatty acids from seeds comprise elaeostearic, linoelic, oleic and saturated acids. The aerial part is hypoglycaemic. Leaf and root is febrifuge. Root is hydragogue, cathartic and tonic. Unripe leaf and fruit is laxative (Husain et al, 1992). The plant is alterative and tonic. Leaves are anthelmintic. Flower is tonic and aphrodisiac. The ripe fruit is sour to sweet, tonic, aphrodisiac, expectorant and removes blood impurities. The other important species belonging to the genus Trichosanthes are as follows. T. palmata Roxb. T. cordata Roxb. T. nervifolia Linn. T. cucumerina Linn. T. anguina Linn. T. wallichiana Wight. syn. T. multiloba Clarke

2. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. syn. Cucurbita Lagenaria Linn. ; Roxb. Eng: Bottle gourd San: Alabu Mal: Katuchuram, Churakka

Hin: Lauki, Jangli-khaddu Tam: Soriai-kay

Ben: Lau, Kodu Tel: Surakkaya

Bottle gourd is a large softly pubescent climbing or trailing herb which is said to be indigenous in India, the Molucas and in Abyssinia. It has stout 5-angled stems with bifid tendrils. Leaves are ovate or orbiculate, cordate, dentate, 5-angular or 5-lobed, hairy on both surfaces. Flowers are large, white, solitary, unisexual or bisexual, the males long and 132

females short peduncled. Ovary is oblong, softly pubescent with short style and many ovules. Fruits are large, usually bottle or dumb-bell-shaped, indehiscent and polymorphous. Seeds are many, white, horizontal, compressed, with a marginal groove and smooth. There are sweet fruited and bitter-fruited varieties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit contains a thick white pulp which, in the cultivated variety (kodu) is sweet and edible, while in the smaller wild variety (tamri) it is bitter and a powerful purgative. The seeds yield clear limpid oil which is cooling and is applied to relieve headache. The pulp of the cultivated forms is employed as and adjunct to purgatives and considered cool, diuretic and antibilious, useful in cough, and as an antidote to certain poisons. Externally it is applied as a poultice. The leaves are purgative and recommended to be taken in the form of decoction for jaundice (Nadkarni, 1998). In the case of sweet-fruited variety, the stem is laxative and sweet. The fruit is sweet oleagenous, cardiotonic, general tonic, aphrodisiac, laxative and cooling. In the case of bitter-fruited variety, the leaves are diuretic, antibilious; useful in leucorrhoea, vaginal and uterine complaints and earache. The fruit is bitter, hot, pungent, emetic, cooling, cardiotonic, antibilious; cures asthma, vata, bronchitis, inflammations ulcers and pains.

3. Luffa acutangula ( Linn. ) Roxb. Eng: Ridged gourd; San: Dharmargavah, Svadukosataki; Hin: Tori, Katitori; Ben: Ghosha Mal: Peechil, Peechinga; Tam: Pikangai, Prikkangai; Tel: Birakaya; Kan: Kadupadagila Ridged gourd or ribbed gourd is a large monoecious climber cultivated throughout India. It is with 5-angled glabrous stems and trifid tendrils. Leaves are orbicular-cordate, palmately 5-7 lobed, scabrous on both sides with prominent veins and veinlets. Flowers are yellow, males arranged in 12-20 flowered axillary racemes. Female flowers are solitary, arranged in the axils of the males. Ovary is strongly ribbed. Fruits are oblong-clavate with 10-sharp angles 15-30cm long, tapering towards the base. Seeds are black, ovoid-oblong, much compressed and not winged (Warrier et al, 1995). The leaves are used in haemorrhoids, leprosy, granular-conjunctivitis and ringworm. The seeds are useful in dermatopathy. The juice of the fresh leaves is dropped into the eyes of children in granular conjunctivitis, also to prevent the lids from adhering at night on account of excessive meihomian secretion (Nadkarni, 1998). Fruits are demulcent, diuretic, tonic, expectorant, laxative and nutritive. The seeds are bitter, emetic, cathartic, expectorant and purgative. The other important species of the genus Luffa are: L. aegyptiaca Mill. L. acutangula var. amara Clarke L. echinata Roxb.

4. Benincasa hispida (Thumb.) Cogn. syn. B. cerifera Savi. Eng: Ash gourd, White gourd melon; San: Kusmandah; Hin: Petha, Raksa; Ben: Kumra Mal: Kumpalam; Tam: Pusanikkai; Kan: Bile Kumbala; Tel: Bodigummadi Ash gourd or White gourd melon is a large trailing gourd climbing by means of tendrils which is widely cultivated in tropical Asia. Leaves are large and hispid beneath. Flowers are yellow, unisexual with male peduncle 7.5-10cm long and female peduncle shorter. Fruits are broadly cylindric, 30-45cm long, hairy throughout and ultimately covered with a waxy bloom. The fruits are useful in asthma, cough, diabetes, haemoptysis, hemorrhages from internal organs, epilepsy, fever and vitiated conditions of pitta. The seeds are useful in dry cough, fever, urethrorrhea, syphilis, hyperdipsia and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al,1993). It is a rejuvenative drug capable of improving 133

intellect and physical strength. In Ayurveda, the fresh juice of the fruit is administered as a specific in haemoptysis and other haemorrhages from internal organs. The fruit is useful in insanity, epilepsy and other nervous diseases, burning sensation, diabetes, piles and dyspepsia. It is a good antidote for many kinds of vegetable, mercurial and alcoholic poisoning. It is also administered in cough, asthma or respiratory diseases, heart diseases and catarrah. Seeds are useful in expelling tapeworms and curing difficult urination and bladder stones. The important formulations using the drug are Kusmandarasayana, Himasagarataila, Dhatryadighrita, Vastyamantakaghrita, Mahaukusmandakaghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). Fruits contain lupeol, -sitosterol, n-triacontanol, vitamin B, mannitol and amino acids. The fruit is alterative, laxative, diuretic, tonic, aphrodisiac and antiperiodic. Seed and oil from seed is anthelmintic (Husain et al, 1992).

5. Momordica charantia Linn. Eng: Bitter gourd, Carilla fruit San: Karavellam Mal: Kaypa, Paval Tam: Pavakkai, Paval, Pakar

Hin: Karela, Kareli Tel: Kakara

Bitter gourd or Carilla fruit is a branched climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India. It is a monoecious plant with angled and grooved stems and hairy or villous young parts. Tendrils are simple, slender and elongate. Leaves are simple, orbicular, cordate and deeply divided into 5-7 lobes. Flowers are unisexual, yellow and arranged on 510cm long peduncles. Fruits are 5-15cm long with 3-valved capsules, pendulous, fusiform, ribbed and beaked bearing numerous triangular tubercles. Seeds are many or few with shining sculptured surface. The roots are useful in coloptosis and ophthalmopathy. The leaves are useful in vitiated conditions of pita, helminthiasis, constipation, intermittent fever, burning sensation of the sole and nyctalopia. The fruits are useful in skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers, wounds, burning sensation, constipation, anorexia, flatulence, colic, helminthiasis, rheumatalgia, gout, diabetes, asthma, cough, dysmenorrhoea, impurity of breast milk, fever and debility. Seeds are useful in the treatment of ulcers, pharyngodynia, and obstructions of the liver and spleen. The leaves and fruits are used for external application in lumbago, ulceration and bone fractures and internally in leprosy, haemorrhoids and jaundice (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug improves digestion, calms down sexual urge, quells diseases due to pitta and kapha and cures anaemia, anorexia, leprosy, ulcers, jaundice, flatulence and piles. Fruit is useful in gout, rheumatism and complaints of liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1966; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). Kaccoradi taila is an important preparation using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The seeds give triterpene glycosides, named momordicosides A, B, C, D and E, which are glycosides of cucurbit-5-en-triol, tetraol or pentaol. Leaves and vines give tetracyclic triterpenes-momordicines I, II and III (bitter principles). Immature fruits give several non-bitter and 2 bitter cucurbitacin glycosides. Four of the non-bitter glycosides, momordicosides F1, F2, G and I and the bitter momordicosides; K and L have also been characterized. Fruits, seeds and tissue culture give a polypeptide which contained 17 types of amino acids and showed hypoglycaemic activity. Fruits also give 5-hydroxy tryptamine and a neutral compound charantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin, cholesterol, lanosterol and -sitosterol. Leaf is emetic, purgative and antibilious. Fruit is stomachic, tonic, carminative, febrifuge, antirheumatic and hypoglycaemic. Root is astringent. Fruit and leaf is anti-leprotic. Fruit, leaf and root are abortifacient and anti-diabetic. Leaf and seed is anthelmintic. Seed oil possesses antifeeding and insecticidal properties. Unsaponifiable matter from seed oil exhibited pronounced inhibitory activity against gram negative bacteria. Seed and fruit are hypoglycaemic, cytotoxic and anti-feedant (Husain et al, 1992). Other important species belonging to the genus Momordica are as follows. M. dioica Roxb. 134

M. cochinchinensis Spreng. M. tuberosa Cogn. M. balsamina Linn.

6. Cucumis melo Linn. syn. C. melo Linn. var. cultis Kurz., C. pubescens Willd., C. callosus (Rottl.) Cogn. Eng: Sweet melon San, Hin: Kharbuja Tam: Chukkari-kai, Thumatti-kai, Mulampazham

Ben: Kharmul Mal: Mulam Tel: Kharbuja-dosha

Sweet melon is a creeping annual extensively cultivated throughout India, found wild in India, Baluchistan and tropical Africa. The stem is creeping, angular and scabrous. Leaves are orbicular-reniform in outline, 5-angled or lobed, scabrous on both surfaces and often with soft hairs. Lobes of leaves are not very deep nor acute and with 5cm long petiole. Female peduncle is 5cm. Fruit is spherical, ovoid, elongate or contorted, glabrous or somewhat hairy, not spinous nor tuberculate. Cucumis melo includes two varieties, namely, C. melo var. momordica syn. C. momordica Roxb. C. melo var. utilissimus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. utilissimus Roxb. The fruit is eaten raw and cooked. Its pulp forms a nutritive, demulcent, diuretic and cooling drink. It is beneficial as a lotion in chronic and acute eczema as well as tan and freckles and internally in cases of dyspepsia. Pulp mixed with cumin seeds and sugar candy is a cool diet in hot season. Seeds yield sweet edible oil which is nutritive and diuretic, useful in painful discharge and suppression of urine. The whole fruit is useful in chronic eczema (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988). Seeds contain fatty acids-myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic; asparagine, glutamine, citrulline, lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine, valine, tyrosine, leucine, iso-leucine, methionine, proline, threonine, tryptophan and crystine. Seed is tonic, lachrymatory, diuretic and urease inhibitor. Fruit pulp is eczemic. Fruit is tonic, laxative, galactagogue, diuretic and diaphoretic. The rind is vulnerary (Husain et al, 1992).

7. Cucumic sativus Linn. Eng: Cucumber, Common cucumber; San: Trapusah; Hin, Ben: Khira; Tam: Vellarikkai, Pippinkai; Kan: Mullusavte; Tel: Dosekaya

Mal: Vellari

Cucumber is a climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India, found wild in the Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim. It is a hispidly hairy trailing or climbing annual. Leaves are simple, alternate, deeply cordate, 3-5 lobed with both surfaces hairy and denticulate margins. Flowers are yellow, males clustered, bearing cohering anthers, connective crusted or elevated above the cells. Females are solitary and thickly covered with very bulbous based hairs. Fruits are cylindrical pepo of varying sizes and forms. Seeds are cream or white with hard and smooth testa. The fruits are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, thermoplegia, fever, insomnia, cephalgia, bronchitis, jaundice, haemorrhages, strangury and general debility. The seeds are useful in burning sensation, pitta, constipation, intermittent fevers, strangury, renal calculus, urodynia and general debility (Warrier et al, 1994). The leaves boiled and mixed with cumin seeds, roasted, powdered and administered in throat affections. Powdered and mixed 135

with sugar, they are powerful diuretic (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruits and seeds are sweet, refrigerant, haemostatic, diuretic and tonic. Other important species belonging to the genus are: C. trigonus Roxb. syn. C. pseudo-colocynthis C. prophetarum Linn. 8. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn. ) Schrader. syn. Cucumis colocynthis Linn. Eng: Colocynth, Bitter apple; San: Visala, Mahendravaruni; Hin: Badi indrayan, Makkal Ben: Makhal; Mal: Kattuvellari (Valutu), Valiya pekkummatti; Tel: Etti-puchcha Tam: Paitummatti, Petummatti; Colocynth or Bitter apple is found, cultivated and wild, throughout India in warmer areas. It is an extensively trailing annual herb with bifid tendrils angular branching stems and wooly tender shoots. Leaves are deeply divided, lobes narrow thick, glabrous or somewhat hairy. Flowers are unisexual, yellow, both males and females solitary and with pale-yellow corolla. Fruit is a globose or oblong fleshy indehiscent berry, 5-7.5cm in diameter and variegated with green and white. Seeds are pale brown. The fruits are useful in tumours, ascites, leucoderma, ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, urethrorrhea, jaundice, dyspepsia, constipations, elephantiasis, tubercular glands of the neck and splenomegaly (Warrier et al, 1994). It is useful in abnormal presentations of the foetus and in atrophy of the foetus. In addition to the above properties, the root has a beneficial action in inflammation of the breasts, pain in the joints; externally it is used in ophthalmia and in uterine pains. The fruit and root, with or without is rubbed into a paste with water and applied to boils and pimples. In rheumatism, equal parts of the root and long pepper are given in pill. A paste of the root is applied to the enlarged abdomen of children (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit is useful in ascites, biliousness, jaundice, cerebral congestion, colic, constipation dropsy, fever, worms and sciatica. Root is given in cases of abdominal enlargement, cough, asthma, inflammation of the breast, ulcers, urinary diseases and rheumatism. Oil from seeds is used for poisonous bites, bowel complaints, epilepsy and also for blackening the hair (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980). The important formulations using the root and fruit are Abhayarista, Mahatiktakam kasaya, Manasamitravatakam, Cavikasava, Madhuyastyadi taila, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The powder is often used as an insecticide. The extract should never be given without some aromatic to correct its griping tendency (Nadkarni, 1998). Fruit contains a glycoside- colocynthin, its aglycone--elaterin, citrulluin, citrullene and citrullic acid. Unripe fruit contains p-hydroxy benzyl methyl ester. Roots contain elaterin and hentriacontane (Husain et al, 1992). Colocynth is, in moderate doses, drastic, hydrogogue, cathartic and diuretic. In large doses, it is emetic and gastro-intestinal irritant and in small doses, it is expectorant and alterative. Colocynthin is a cathartic and intensely bitter principle. It has a purgative action. All parts of the plant are very bitter. The fruit has been described as cathartic (Nadkarni, 1982).

9. Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. syn. C. lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai. Eng: Water melon; Mal: Thannimathan;

San: Tarambuja; Hin: Tarbuj; Tam: Pitcha, Dharbusini

Ben: Tarbuz

Watermelon is an extensively climbing annual which is largely cultivated throughout India and in all warm countries. It has thick angular branching stems. Tendrils are bifid, stout and pubescent. Leaves are long, deeply divided or moderately lobed, 136

glabrous or somewhat hairy and hardly scabrous. Petiole is a little shorter than the limb and villous. Calyx-lobes are narrowly lanceolate, equalling the tube. Corolla is yellow within, greenish outside and villous. Lobes are ovate-oblong, obtuse and prominently 5-nerved. Fruit is sub-globose or ellipsoid, smooth, greenish or clouded, often with a glaucous waxy coating. Flesh is juicy, red or yellowish white. Seeds are usually margined. C. vulgaris var. fistulosus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. fistulosus has its fruit about the size of small turnip, the seeds of which are used medicinally. The fruit is tasteless when unripe and sweet when ripe. The unripe fruit is used to cure jaundice. Ripe fruit cures kapha and vata and causes biliousness. It is good for sore eyes, scabies and itching. The seeds are tonic to the brain and used as a cooling medicine. An emulsion of the seeds is made into a poultice with the pounded leaves and applied hot in cases of intestinal inflammations (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Fruit juice is good in quenching thirst and it is used as an antiseptic in typhus fever with cumin and sugar. It is used as a cooling drink in strangury and affections of urinary organs such as gonorrhoea; in hepatic congestion and intestinal catarrh. The bitter watermelon of Sind is known as “Kirbut” and is used as a purgative. Seeds yield a fixed oil and proteids; citrullin. Seeds are cooling, demulcent, diuretic, vermifuge and nutritive. Pulp is cooling and diuretic. Fruit-juice is cooling and refreshing (Nadkarni, 1982).

10. Curcurbita pepo Linn. syn. Pepo vulgaris et P. verrucosus Moench Meth. Eng: Pompion, Pumpkin, Vegetable Marrow; Hin, Ben: Kadimah, Konda, Kumra, Safedkkadu; Tel: Budadegummadi, Pottigummadi

San: Karkaru, Kurkaru, Kushmandi Mal: Mathan, Matha

Pompion or Pumpkin is a climbing herb which is considered to be a native of America and cultivated in many parts of India. The stem and leaves are with a harsh prickly armature. Foliage is stiff, more or less rigid and erect. Leaves are with a broad triangular pointed outline and often with deep lobes. Corolla is mostly with erect or spreading (not drooping) pointed lobes, the tube narrowing towards the base. Peduncle is strongly 5angled and little or much expanding near the fruit. The fruit is cooling and astringent to the bowels, increases appetite, cures leprosy, ‘kapha and vata’, thirst, fatigue and purifies the blood. The leaves are used to remove biliousness. Fruit is good for teeth, throat and eyes and allays thirst. Seeds cure sore chests, haemoptysis, bronchitis and fever. It is good for the kidney and brain. The leaves are used as an external application for burns. The seeds are considered anthelmintic. The seeds are largely used for flavouring certain preparations of Indian hemp, and the root for a nefarious purpose, viz., to make the preparation more potent. The seeds are taeniacide, diuretic and demulcent. The fruit is cooling, laxative and astringent. The leaves are digestible, haematinic and analgesic. The other important species belonging to the genus Cucurbita is C. maxima Duchena, the seeds of which are a popular remedy for tape-worm and oil as a nervine tonic (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

11. Corallocarpus epigaeus Benth. ex Hook. f. syn. Bryonia epigaea Wight. San: Katunahi; Hin: Akasgaddah; Mal: Kadamba, Kollankova Tam: Akashagarudan, Gollankovai; Tel: Murudonda, Nagadonda

137

Corallocarpus is a prostrate or climbing herb distributed in Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Deccan, Karnataka and Sri Lanka. It is monoecious with large root which is turnip-shaped and slender stem which is grooved, zigzag and glabrous. Tendrils are simple, slender and glabrous. Leaves are sub-orbicular in outline, light green above and pale beneath, deeply cordate at the base, angled or more or less deeply 3-5 lobed. Petiole is long and glabrous. Male flowers are small and arranged at the tip of a straight stiff glabrous peduncle. Calyx is slightly hairy, long and rounded at the base. Corolla is long and greenish yellow. Female flowers are usually solitary with short, stout and glabrous peduncles. Fruit is stalked, long, ellipsoid or ovoid. Seeds are pyriform, turgid, brown and with a whitish corded margin. It is prescribed in later stages of dysentery and old veneral complaints. For external use in chronic rheumatism, it is made into a liniment with cumin seed, onion and castor oil. It is used in case of snakebite where it is administered internally and applied to the bitten part. The root is given in syphilitic rheumatism and later stages of dysentery. The plant is bitter, sweet, alexipharmic and emetic. The root is said to possess alterative and laxative properties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Root contains a bitter principle like Breyonin (Chopra et al, 1980).

Agrotechnology Cucurbits can be successfully grown during January-March and SeptemberDecember. For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers. The seed rate and spacing recommended for the cucurbits are given below: Plants Bitter gourd Snake gourd Bottle gourd Ash gourd Pumpkin Cucumber/Melon Water melon

Seed rate (kg/ha) 5.0-6.0 3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0 0.75-1.00 1.0-1.5 0.5-0.75 1.0-1.5

Spacing (m) 2.0x2.0 2.0x2.0 3.0x3.0 4.5x2.0 4.5x2.0 2.0x1.5 2.0x3.0

Pits of 60cm diameter and 30-45cm depth are to be taken at the desired spacing. Well rotten FYM or vegetable mixture is to be mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are to be sown at 4-5/pit. Unhealthy plants are to be removed after 2 weeks and retained 2-3 plants/pit. FYM is to be applied at 20-25t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35kg/ha) and full dose of P (25kg) and K (25kg). The remaining dose of N (35kg) can be applied in 2 equal split doses at fortnightly intervals. During the initial stages of growth, irrigation is to be given at an interval of 3-4 days and at alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods. For trailing cucumber, pumpkin and melon, dried twigs are to be spread on the ground. Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and ash gourd are to be trailed on Pandals. Weeding and raking of the soil are to be conducted at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season. The most dreaded pest of cucurbits is fruit flies which can be controlled by using fruit traps, covering the fruits with polythene, cloth or paper bags, removal and destruction of affected fruits and lastly spraying with Carbaryl or Malathion 0. 2% suspension containing sugar or jaggery at 10g/l at fortnightly intervals after fruit set initiation. During rainy season, downy mildew and mosaic diseases are severe in cucurbits. The former can be checked by spraying Mancozeb 0.2%. The spread of mosaic can be checked by controlling the vectors using Dimethoate or Phosphamidon 0.05% and destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts. Harvesting to be done at least 10 days after insecticide or fungicide application (KAU,1996). 138

MEDICINAL YAMS

Dioscorea spp.

Dioscoreaceae

The growing need for steroidal drugs and the high cost of obtaining them from animal sources led to a widespread search for plant sources of steroidal sapogenins, which ultimately led to the most promising one. It is the largest genus of the family constituted by 600 species of predominantly twining herbs. Among the twining species, some species twine clockwise while others anti-clockwise (Miege, 1958). All the species are dioceous and rhizomatous. According to Coursey (1967), this genus is named in honour of the Greek physician Pedenios Dioscorides, the author of the classical Materia Medica Libri Quinque. Some of the species like D. alata and D. esculenta have been under cultivation for a long time for their edible tubers. There are about 15 species of this genus containing diosgenin. Some of them are the following (Chopra et al, 1980). D. floribunda Mart. & Gal. D. composita Hemsl; syn. D. macrostachya Benth. D. deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb; syn. D. nepalensis Sweet ex Bernardi. D. aculeata Linn. syn. D. esculenta D. alata Linn. syn. D. atropurpurea Roxb. D. Globosa Roxb; D. purpurea Roxb; D. rubella Roxb. D. bulbifera Linn. syn. D. crispata Roxb. D. pulchella Roxb.; D. sativa Thunb. Non Linn. D. versicolor Buch. Ham. Ex Wall. D. daemona Roxb. syn. D. hispida Dennst. D. oppositifolia Linn. D. pentaphylla Linn. syn. D. jacquemontii Hook. f. D. triphylla Linn. D. prazeri Prain & Burkil syn. D. clarkei Prain & Burkill D. deltoidea Wall. var. sikkimensis Prain D. sikkimensis Prain & Burkill Among the above said species, D. floribunda, D. composita and D. deltoidea are widely grown for diosgenin production.

1.

D. floribunda Mart. & Gal

D. floribunda Mart. & Gal. is an introduction from central America and had wide adaptation as it is successfully grown in Karnataka, Assam, Meghalaya, Andaman and Goa. The vines are glabrous and left twining. The alternate leaves are borne on slender stems and have broadly ovate or triangular ovate, shallowly cordate, coriaceous lamina with 9 nerves. The petioles are 5-7cm long, thick and firm. Variegation in leaves occurs in varying degrees. The male flowers are solitary and rarely in pairs. Female flowers have divericate stigma which is bifid at apex. The capsule is obovate and seed is winged all round. The tubers are thick with yellow coloured flesh, branched and growing upto a depth of 30cm (Chadha et al, 1995).

2.

D. composita Hemsl.

D. composita Hemsl. according to Knuth (1965) has the valid botanical name as D. macrostachya Benth. However, D. composita is widely used in published literature. It is a Central American introduction into Goa, Jammu, Bangalore, Anaimalai Hills of Tami Nadu and Darjeeling in W. Bengal. The vines are right twinning and nearly glabrous. The alternate leaves have long petioles, membraneous or coriaceous lamina measuring upto 20x18cm, abruptly acute or cuspidate-acuminate, shallowly or deeply cordate, 7-9 nerved. The fasciculate-glomerate inflorescence is single or branched with 2 or 3 sessile male

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flowers having fertile stamens. Male fascicle is 15-30cm long. The female flowers have bifid stigma. Tubers are large, white and deep-rooted (upto 45cm) (Chadha et al, 1995).

3.

D. deltoidea Wall. ex. Griseb.

D. deltoidea Wall. ex. Griseb. is distributed throughout the Himalayas at altitudes of 1000-3000m extending over the states of Jammu-Kashmir, H. P, U. P, Sikkim and further into parts of W. Bengal. The glabrous and left twining stem bears alternate petiolate leaves. The petioles are 5-12 cm long. The lamina is 5-15cm long and 4-12cm wide widely cordate. The flowers are borne on axillary spikes, male spikes 8-40cm long and stamens 6. Female spikes are 15cm long, 3. 5cm broad and 4-6 seeded. Seeds are winged all round. Rhizomes are lodged in soil, superficial, horizontal, tuberous, digitate and chestnut brown in colour (Chadha et al, 1995). D. deltoidea tuber grows parallel to ground covered by small scale leaves and is described as rhizome. The tubers are morphologically cauline in structure with a ring of vascular bundles in young tubers which appear scattered in mature tubers (Purnima and Srivastava, 1988). Visible buds are present unlike in D. floribunda and D. composita where the buds are confined to the crown position (Selvaraj et al, 1972).

Importance of Diosgenin Diosgenin is the most important sapogenin used as a starting material for synthesis of a number of steroidal drugs. For commercial purposes, its -isomer, yamogenin is also taken as diosgenin while analysing the sample for processing. Various steroidal drugs derived from diosgenin by artificial synthesis include corticosteroids, sex hormones, anabolic steroids and oral contraceptives. Corticosteroids are the most important group of steroidal drugs synthesized from diosgenin. First group of corticosteroids regulates carbohydrate and protein metabolism. The second group consists of aldosterone, which controls balance of potassium, sodium and water in the human body. The glucocorticoids in the form of cortisone and hydrocortisone are used orally, intramuscularly or topically for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, other collegen diseases, ulcerative colitis, certain cases of asthma and a number of allergic diseases affecting skin, eye and the ear. These are also used for treatment of gout and a variety of inflammations of skin, eye and ear and as replacement therapy in Addison’s diseases. The minerato corticoides, desoxycorticosterone or desoxycortone are used in restoring kidney functions in cases of cortical deficiency and Addison’s disease. Both male and female sex hormones are also synthesized from disosgenin. The main male sex hormone (androgen) which is produced from disogenin is testosterone. The main female sex hormones produced are oestrogen and progesterone. Recently oestrogen has also been used in cosmetic lotions and creams to improve the tone and colour of skin. One of the main uses of progesterone during recent years has been as antifertility agent for oral contraceptives. These artificial steroids have increased oral activity and fewer side effects, as they can be used in reduced doses. Oral contraceptives are also used for animals like pigs, cows and sheep to control fertility and to give birth at a prescribed period in a group of animals at the same time. These compounds are also used to reduce the interval between the lactation periods to have more milk and meat production. Anti-fertility compounds are also used as a pest-control measure for decreasing the multiplication of pests like rodents, pigeons and sea gulls (Husain et al, 1979). Although yam tubers contain a variety of chemical substances including carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids and tannins, the most important constituents of these yams are a group of saponins which yield sapogenins on hydrolysis. The most important sapogenin found in Dioscorea are diosgenin, yamogenin and pannogenin. Diosgenin is a steroid drug precursor. The diogenin content varies from 2-7% depending on the age of the tubers. Saponins including 5 spirastanol glucoside and 2 furostanol glucoside, 4 new steroid

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saponins, floribunda saponins C, D, E and F. Strain of A and B are obtained from D. floribunda (Husain et al, 1979). Rhizomes of D. deltoidea are a rich source of diosgenin and its glycoside. Epismilagenin and smilagenone have been isolated from D. deltoidea and D. prazeri (Chakravarti et al, 1960; 1962). An alkaloid dioscorine has been known to occur in D. hispida (Bhide et al,1978). Saponin of D. prazeri produced a fall of blood pressure when given intravenously and saponin of D. deltoidea has no effect on blood pressure (Chakravarti et al,1963). Deltonin, a steroidal glycoside, isolated from rhizomes of D. deltoidea showed contraceptive activity (Biokova et al, 1990).

Agrotechnology Dioscorea species prefer a tropical climate without extremity in temperature. It is adapted to moderate to heavy rainfall area. Dioscorea plants can be grown in a variety of soils, but light soil is good, as harvesting of tubers is easier in such soils. The ideal soil pH is 5.5-6.5 but tolerates fairly wide variation in soil pH. Dioscorea can be propagated by tuber pieces, single node stem cuttings or seed. Commercial planting is normally established by tuber pieces only. Propagation through seed progeny is variable and it may take longer time to obtain tuber yields. IIHR, Bangalore has released two improved varieties, FB( c )-1, a vigorously growing strain relatively free from diseases and Arka Upkar, a high yielding clone. Three types of tuber pieces can be distinguished for propagation purpose, viz. (1) crown (2) median and (3) tip, of which crowns produce new shoots within 30 days and are therefore preferred. Dipping of tuber pieces for 5 minutes in 0.3% solution of Benlate followed by dusting the cut ends with 0.3% Benlate in talcum powder in moist sand beds effectively checks the tuber rot. The treatment is very essential for obtaining uniform stand of the crop. The best time of planting is the end of April so that new sprouts will grow vigorously during the rainy season commencing in June in India. Land is to be prepared thoroughly until a fine tilth is obtained. Deep furrows are made at 60cm distance with the help of a plough. The stored tuber pieces which are ready for planting is to be planted in furrows with 30cm between the plants for one year crop and 45cm between the plants for 2 year crop at about 0.5 cm below soil level. The new sprouts are to be staked immediately. After sprouting is complete, the plants are to be earthed up. Soil from the ridges may be used for earthing up so that the original furrows will become ridges and vice versa. Dioscorea requires high organic matter for good tuber formation. Besides a basal doze of 18-20t of FYM/ha, a complete fertilizer dose of 300kg N, 150kg P2O5 and K2O each are to be applied per hectare. P and K are to be applied in two equal doses one after the establishment of the crop during May-June and the other during vigorous growth period of the crop (August-September). Irrigation may be given at weekly intervals in the initial stage and afterwards at about 10 days interval. Dioscorea vines need support for their optimum growth and hence the vines are to be trailed over pandal system or trellis. Periodic hand weeding is essential for the first few months. Intercropping with legumes has been found to smother weeds and provide extra income. The major pests of Dioscorea are the aphids and red spider mites. Aphids occur more commonly on young seedlings and vines. Young leaves and vine tips eventually die if aphids are not controlled. Red spider mites attack the underside of the leaves at the base near the petiole. Severe infestations result in necrotic areas, which are often attacked by fungi. Both aphids and spider mites can be very easily controlled by Kelthane. No serious disease is reported to infect this crop. The tubers grow to about 25-30 cm depth and hence harvesting is to be done by manual labour. The best season for harvesting is Feb-March, coinciding with the dry period. On an average 50-60t/ha of fresh tubers can be obtained in 2 years duration. Diosgenin content tends to increase with age, 2.5% in first year and 3-3.5% in the second year. Hence, 2 year crop is economical (Kumar et al, 1997).

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IPECAC

Cephaelis ipecacuanha

Rubiaceae

Importance Ipecac is a small evergreen herb with much branched beaded roots. It is used in powdered form or as liquid total extract, syrup and tincture. Ipecac syrup in small doses is used as an expectorant, as it is well tolerated by children. It is used in treatment of whooping cough. Ipecac with opium as in Dover’s powder is used as a diaphoretic, tincture and syrup. Emetine hydrochloride in the form of injection is used for treatment of amoebic dysentery. Emetine bismuth iodide is also given orally for amoebic dysentery. Ipecac is also used as gastric stimulant and as an anti-inflammatory agent in rheumatism.

Distribution The plant is a native of Bolivia and Brazil. It is cultivated in Mungpoo, near Darjeeling and on the Nilgiris, especially New Kallar, and at the Rungbee Cinchona plantation in Sikkim.

Botany Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich. syn. Psychotria ipecacuanha Stokes. belongs to the family Rubiaceae. The plant grows upto 0.7m high, with slender cylindrical stem. When mature the roots are dark brown and have transverse furrows giving it a beaded appearance. Above ground stem is quadrangular and trailing with few or new branches. Leaves are opposite near the top of the plant and alternate below, 5-10x3-6cm area, dark green above and pale green underneath. Flowers are white, sessile, funnel-like, less than 1cm wide and are borne in dense clusters. Fruit is purple with two stones containing single seed (Husain, 1993).

Agrotechnology Ipecac prefers an average rainfall ranging between 2000-3000mm and evenly distributed. Maximum temperature should not exceed 38C and the minimum not below 10C. It thrives well in tropical mild humid climates similar to Malaysian rain forests. Virgin forest soils rich in humus are ideal for Ipecac. It prefers deep medium fertile soils which are acidic and rich in humus, potash and magnesium. Soil should be well drained and protected from wind and storm. As Ipecac grows only in shade, it can be cultivated as an intercrop, or planted in artificially shaded beds. The plant is propagated both by seeds and vegetatively by root, stem and leaf cuttings. Vegetative propagation is preferred to maintain genetic uniformity of the plant. Most of the commercial plantations are raised by seeds. Raised seed beds of 2x6m size are made and are mixed with well rotten leaf compost and sand. These are provided with shade on the top as well as on the sides. Seeds are drilled or broadcasted in the beds and watered regularly. Seeds take 3-5 months to germinate. Seed treatment with limewater for 48 hours or H2O2 improves germination. It has been observed that providing mulch or black polythene in nursery beds improves germination as well as results in control of weeds. The suitable season of planting is January-March in West Bengal. Seedlings are planted in production beds at a spacing of 10x10cm after they are 812 weeks old. In West Bengal, it is a practice to transfer seedlings to other nursery beds before being transferred to final production seedbeds. FYM and leaf compost application is required during second and third year. Super phosphate applications is found to improve root growth. Frequent irrigation is required. Waterlogging should be avoided. Both the

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seedbeds and production beds should be kept free from weeds. Seedlings are often attacked by damping off fungi like Rhizoctonia sp. in nursery. It is better to treat the seeds with a suitable seed dressing fungicide before planting. Fusarium wilt caused by F. moniliforme has been reported from India. The plants are ready for harvesting after 4 years. The roots should be dug out, washed and dried in the sun. Rhizome and root are the economical parts (Husain, 1993).

Properties and Activity Ipecac root contains 2.2-2.5% total alkaloids. The main alkaloids are cephaeline and emetine. In addition, it also contains psychotrine and psychotrine ethyl ether. The drug also contains a crystalline glucosidal tannin, starch and calcium oxalate (60-70% of the alkaloids is emetine). Root contains minor amounts of O-methyl psychotrine, emetamine, protoemetine and others. Other constituents of ipecac include choline, glycoside-ipecoside, saponins, resins, tannins-ipecacuanhin, an allergen composed of mixture of glycoproteins, ipecacuanhic acid, a neutral monoterpene acid and calcium oxalate. Cephaeline could be converted into emetine on methylation. The powdered dried rhizome and root cause severe asthmatic attacks and vasomotorrhinitis. Emetine hydrochloride is anti-amoebic. Root is emetic, expectorant and diaphoretic (Husain et al, 1992).

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CURCUMA

Curcuma spp.

Zingiberaceae

The genus Curcuma belonging to the family Zingiberaceae comprises of a number of species which are medicinally very important. Among them, the most important species are described below.

1. C. amada Roxb. English: Mango ginger Mal: Mangainchi

San: Amrardrakam, Karpuraharida Tam: Mankayinci

Hin: Ama-haldi Tel: Mamidi Allam

Mango ginger is cultivated in Gujarat and found wild in parts of West Bengal, U. P, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is a rhizomatous aromatic herb with a leafy tuft and 60-90cm in height. Leaves are long, petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, tapering at both ends, glabrous and green on both sides. Flowers are white or pale yellow, arranged in spikes in the centre of tuft of the leaves. Lip is semi-elliptic, yellow, 3-lobbed with the mid lobe emarginate. The rhizomes are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, bruises, wounds, chronic ulcers, skin diseases, pruritus, fever, constipations, strangury, hiccough, cough, bronchitis, sprains, gout, halitosis, otalgia and inflammations (Warrier et al, 1994). The fresh root possesses the smell of green mango and hence the name mango ginger. The rhizomes are used externally in the form of paste as an application for bruises and skin diseases generally combined with other medicines. Tubers rubbed with the leafjuice of Caesalpinia bonduc is given for worms (Nadkarni, 1982). The essential oil contains -pinene, -and -curcumene, camphor, cuminyl alcohol, myristic acid and turmerone. Car-3-ene and cis-ocimene contribute the characteristic mango odour of the rhizome. Rhizome is CNS active, hypothermic and it shows potentiation of amphetamine toxicity. Tuber is trypsin inhibitor and is effective against Vibrio cholerae (Husain et al, 1992). The rhizomes are bitter, sweet sour, aromatic, cooling, appetiser, carminative, digestive, stomachic, demulcent, vulnerary, febrifuge, alexertic, aphrodisiac, laxative, diurectic, expectorant, antiinflammatory and antipyretic (Warrier et al, 1994).

2. C. aromatica Salisb. Eng: Wild turmeric; San: Aranyaharidra, Vanaharidra; Hin: Ban-haridra, Jangli-haldi; Ben: Ban Haland; Mal, Tam: Kasturimanjal, Kattumanjal; Tel: Adavi-pasupu; Kan: Kadarasina Wild turmeric or Cochin turmeric or Yellow zeodoary is found wild throughout India and cultivated in Bengal and Kerala. It is a perennial tuberous herb with annulate, aromatic yellow rhizome which is internally orange-red in colour. Leaves are elliptic or lanceolate-oblong, caudate-acuminate, 30-60cm long, petioles as long or even longer, bracts ovate, recurved, more or less tinged with red or pink. Flowers are pink, lip yellow, obovate, deflexed, sub-entire or obscurely three lobed. Fruits are dehiscent, globose, 3valved capsules. Rhizomes are used in combination with astringents and aromatics for bruises, sprains, hiccough, bronchitis, cough, leucoderma and skin eruptions (Warrier et al, 1994). The rhizomes have an agreeable fragrant smell and yield a yellow colouring matter like turmeric, and the fresh root has a camphoraceous odour. The dried rhizome is used as a carminative and aromatic adjunctant to other medicines (Nadkarni, 1998). Essential oil contains -and --curcumene, d-camphene and p-methoxy cinnamic acid. The colouring matter is curcumin. Numerous sesquiterpenoids of germacrone and guaiane skeletons have been identified recently. Rhizome has effect on respiration. It is spasmolytic and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. Rhizome is an anti-dote for snakebite and carminative (Husain et al, 1992). 144

3. C. longa Linn. syn. C. domestica Valeton. Eng: Turmeric; San: Haridra, Varavarnini; Hin: Haldi, halda; Ben: Haldi; Mal: Manjal, Pachamanjal, Varattumanjal; Tam: Mancal; Kan: Haldi, Arasina; Tel: Pasapu Turmeric is cultivated all over India, particularly in W. Bengal, T. N and Maharashtra. It is a perennial herb, 60-90cm in height, with a short stem and tufts of erect leaves. Rhizome is cylindric, ovoid, orange coloured and branched. Leaves are simple, very large, petiole as long as the blade, oblong-lanceolate, tapering to the base upto 45cm long. Flowers are pale yellow, arranged in spikes concealed by the sheathing petioles and flowering bracts are pale green (Warrier et al, 1994). Turmeric occupies an important position in the life of Indian people as it forms an integral part of the rituals, ceremonies and cuisine. Due to the strong antiseptic properties, turmeric has been used as a remedy for all kinds of poisonous affections, ulcers and wounds. It gives good complexion to the skin and so it is applied to face as a depilatory and facial tonic. The drug cures diseases due to morbid vata, pitta and kapha, diabetes, eye diseases, ulcers, oedema, anaemia, anorexia, leprosy and scrofula. It purifies blood by destroying the pathogenic organisms. A paste of turmeric alone, or combined with a paste of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves, is used to cure ringworm, obstinate itching, eczema and other parasitic skin diseases and in chicken pox and small pox. The drug is also useful in cold, cough, bronchitis, conjunctivitis and liver affections (Nadkarni, 1954; Kurup et al,1979; Kolammal, 1979). The rhizome is the officinal part and is an important ingredient of formulations like Nalpamaradi taila, Jatyadi taila, Narayana gula, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). Turmeric paste mixed with a little limejuice and saltpetre and applied hot is a popular application to sprains and bruises. In smallpox and chickenpox, a coating of turmeric is applied to facilitate the process of scabbing. The smoke produced by sprinkling powdered turmeric over burnt charcoal will relieve scorpion sting when the part affected is exposed to the smoke for a few minutes. Turmeric and alum powder in the proportion of 1:20 is blown into the ear in chronic otorrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). “Haridra Khand”, a compound containing powdered turmeric, sugar and many other ingredients is a wellknown preparation for cold, cough and flu, and for skin diseases. In Unani system, roasted turmeric is an ingredient of “Hab Narkachur”, used as antidysenteric for children (Thakur et al, 1989). Essential oil contains ar-turmerone, and ar-curcumene as major constituents. Some of the other compounds are -and -pinene, sabinene, myrcene, -terpinene, limonene, pcymene, perillyl alcohol, turmerone, eugenol, iso-eugenol, eugenol methyl ether and isoeugenol methyl ether. Curcumin and related compounds have also been reported as major constituents of the rhizomes. Recently a number of sesquiterpenes have been reported from C. longa, viz., the sesquiterpenoids of germacrane, bisabolane and guainane skeletons (Husain et al, 1992). The study of sesquiterpenes has revealed a new compound curlone (Kisoy et al, 1983). The crystalline colouring matter curcumin (0. 6%) is diferuloyl methane (Mathews et al, 1980). Stigmasterol, cholestrol, -sitosterol and fatty acids, mainly straight chain dienoic acids are reported (Moon et al, 1977). Curcumin, the colouring agent and major constituent of C. longa, is said to possess local as well as systemic antiinflammatory property which has been found to compare favourably with phenylbutazone (Srimal and Dhawan, 1973). An extract of the crude drug ‘akon’ containing the rhizomes exhibited intensive preventive activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver injury invivo and invitro. The liver protecting effects of some analogs of ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid, probable metabolites of the curcuminoids have been also evaluated (Kiso et al, 1983). Curcumin is antiinflammatory. Rhizome is antiprotozoal, spasmolytic, CNS active, antiparasitic, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antiarthritic, anthelmintic,

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carminative, antiperiodic, emollient, anodyne, laxative, diruretic, expectorant, alterative, alexertive, febrifuge, opthalmic and tonic.

4. C. zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc. syn. C. zerumbet Roxb; Amomum zedoaria Christm. Eng: Round zedoary; San: Kachura, Shati; Hin: Kakhur; Ben: Sati; Kan: Kachora Mal: Manjakoova, Adavi-kacholam; Tam: Kichilikizhangu, Nirvisham; Tel: Kacheramu The round zedoary or Zerumbet is mostly found in India and S. E. Asia. The plant has 4-6 leaves with 20-60cm long lamina. The leaf lamina is oblong-lanceolate, finely acuminate and glabrous on both the surfaces. Flower stalk is 20-25cm long, emerging before the leaves. Flowers are yellow, while the flowering bract is green tinged with red. Calyx is 8mm long, corolla tube is twice as long as the calyx. Capsule is ovoid, trigonous, thin smooth and bursting irregularly. Tubers are palmately branched and camphoraceous (Thakur et al, 1989). The identity of the plant sources of the drug Karcura is a matter of debate. There is difference of opinion among men of Ayurveda, as to whether Sati and Karcura are the same drug or different. Many authors consider them different and equate Sati with Hedychium spicatum Smith. and Karcura with C. zedoaria, both belonging to Zingiberaceae (Kurup et al,1979; Chunekar 1982; Sharma, 1983). Some others treat them to be the same and equate it with C. zedoaria (Kirtikar and Basu, 1918; Vaidya, 1936; Nadkarni, 1954; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979). However, the source of Karcura in Kerala in the recent times has been Kaempferia galanga of the same family. The rhizome of C. zedoaria is used as appetiser and tonic, particularly prescribed to ladies after childbirth. In case of cold, a decoction of long pepper (Piper longum), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), zedoary and honey is given. In Ayurveda it is an ingredient of “Braticityadi kwatha”, used in high fever (Thakur et al, 1989). Root is useful in flatulence and dyspepsia, and as a corrector of purgatives. Fresh root checks leucorrhoeal and gonorrhoeal discharges. Root powder is a good substitute for many foreign foods for infants. For worms, the juice from the tubers is given to children. Juice of the leaves is given in dropsy (Nadkarni, 1982). It is an odoriferous ingredient of the cosmetics used for the cure of chronic skin diseases caused by impure or deranged blood (Nadkarni, 1998). Essential oil from rhizomes contains -pinene, d-camphene, cineole, d-camphor, sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols (Husain et al, 1992). The novel sesquiterpenoids which have been isolated and characterised are cuzerenone, epi-cuzerenone, isofuranogermerene, curcumadiol, curcumol, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, procurcumenol, dehydrocurdione (Hikino et al, 1968, 1971, 1972), germacrone-4, 5-epoxide, germacrone, germacrone furanodienone, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, curcumanolides A and B and curcumenone (Shiobara et al, 1985). The starch left after the extraction is purified and sold as a commodity of cottage industry in West-Bengal under the name ‘Shoti’ (Rao et al, 1928). Ethyl-p methoxy-cinnamate has been isolated from the alcoholic extract of the plant (Gupta et al, 1976). Rhizome is stomachic, diuretic, and carminative and gastrointestinal stimulant. Other important species of Curcuma genus are C. angustifolia Roxb. (Vellakoova) C. caesia Roxb. (Black ginger) C. leucorhiza Roxb. C. pseudomontana Grah. C. rubescens Roxb.

Agrotechnology Curcuma species are tropical herbs and can be grown on different types of soils both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Rich loamy soils having good drainage are ideal for the crop. The plant is propagated by whole or split mother rhizomes. Well developed, healthy and disease free rhizomes are to be selected. Rhizomes are to be treated 146

with copper oxychloride fungicides and stored in cool, dry place or earthen pits plastered with mud and cowdung. The best season of planting is during April with the receipt of premonsoon showers. The land is to be prepared to a fine tilth during February-March. On receipt of pre-monsoon showers in April, beds of size 3x1.2m with a spacing of 40cm between beds are to be prepared. Small pits are to be taken in the beds in rows with a spacing of 25-40cm. Finger rhizomes are to be planted flat with buds facing upwards and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. The crop is to be mulched immediately after planting and 50 days after first mulching. Cattle manure or compost is to be applied as basal dose at 20-40t/ha at the time of land preparation or by spreading over the beds after planting. Application of NPK fertilizers is beneficial and found to increase the yield considerably. Weeding is to be done twice at 60 and 120 days after planting, depending upon weed intensity. Earthing up is to be done after 60 days. No major incidence of pest or disease is noticed in this crop. Leaf blotch and leaf spot can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Mancozeb. Shoot borers can be controlled by spraying 0.05% Dimethoate or 0.025% Quinalphos. Time of harvest usually extends from January-March. Harvesting is generally done at about 7-10 months after planting depending upon the species and variety. Harvested rhizomes are to be cleaned of mud and other materials adhering to them. Good fingers separated are to be used for curing (KAU, 1996).

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INDIAN SARASAPARILLA Hemidesmus indicus Asclepiadaceae San: Anantamulah, Sariba; Hin: Anantamul, Magrabu; Ben: Anantamul; Mal: Nannari, Naruninti, Narunanti; Tam: Nannari, Saribam; Tel: Sugandipala; Kan: Namadaballi

Importance Indian Sarasaparilla or Country Sarasaparilla is a climbing slender plant with twining woody stems and a rust-coloured bark. The roots are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, burning sensation, leucoderma, leprosy, skin diseases, pruritus, asthma, bronchitis, hyperdipsia, opthalmopathy, hemicrania, epileptic fits, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids, strangury, leucorrhoea, syphilis, abcess, arthralgia, fever and general debility. The leaves are useful in vomiting, wounds and leucoderma. The stems are bitter, diaphoretic and laxative and are useful in inflammations, cerebropathy, hepatopathy, nephropathy, syphilis, metropathy, leucoderma, odontalgia, cough and asthma. The latex is good for conjunctivitis (Warrier et al, 1995). The important formulations using the drug are Saribadyasava, Pindataila, Vidaryadi lehya, Draksadi kasaya, Jatyadi ghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The Hemidesmus root powdered and mixed with cow’s milk is given with much benefit in the case of strangury. In the form of syrup, it has demulcent and diuretic proportions. The root, roasted in plantain leaves, then beaten into a mass with cumin and sugar and mixed with ghee is a household remedy in genito-urinary diseases. The hot infusion of the root-bark with milk and sugar is a good alterative tonic especially for children in cases of chronic cough and diarrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). It has been successfully used in the cure of venereal diseases where American Sarasaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis Linn.) has failed. Native doctors utilize it in nephritic complaints and for sore mouths of children (Grieve and Leyel, 1992).

Distribution Hemidesmus is distributed throughout India, the Moluccas and Sri Lanka.

Botany Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. syn. Periploca indica Linn. belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. It is a perennial, slender, laticiferous, twining or prostrate, wiry shrub with woody rootstock and numerous slender, terete stems having thickened nodes. Leaves are simple, opposite, very variable from elliptic-oblong to linear-lanceolate, variegated with white above and silvery white and pubescent beneath. Flowers are greenish purple crowded in sub-sessile cymes in the opposite leaf-axils. Fruits are slender follicles, cylindrical, 10cm long, tapering to a point at the apex. Seeds are flattened, black, ovateoblong and coma silvery white. The tuberous root is dark-brown, coma silvery white, tortuous with transversely cracked and longitudinally fissured bark. It has a strong central vasculature and a pleasant smell and taste (Warrier et al, 1995). The Ayurvedic texts mention two varieties, viz. a krsna or black variety and a sveta or white variety (Aiyer, 1951) which together constitute the pair, Saribadvayam. The drug is known as Sariba. Svetasariba is H. indicus. Two plants, namely, Ichnocarpus fructescens (Apocynaceae) known as pal-valli in vernacular and Cryptolepis buchanani (Asclepidaceae) known as Katupalvalli (Rheeds, 1689) are equated with black variety or Krsnasariba (Chunekar, 1982; Sharma, 1983).

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Agrotechnology Hemidesmus is propagated through root cuttings. The root cuttings of length 3-5cm can be planted in polybags or in the field. They can be planted in flat beds or on ridges. Planting is done usually at a spacing of 50x20cm. Heavy application of organic manure is essential for good growth and root yield. Inorganic fertilizers are not usually applied. Frequent weeding and earthing up are required, as the plant is only slow growing. Provision of standards for twining will further improve the growth and yield of the plant.

Properties and Activity The twigs of the plant give a pregnane ester diglycoside named desinine. Roots give -sitosterol, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzaldehyde, -amyrin, -amyrin and its acetate, hexatriacontane, lupeol octacosonate, lupeol and its acetate. Leaves, stem and root cultures give cholesterol, campesterol, -sitosterol and 16-dehydro-pregnenolone. Leaves and flowers also give flavonoid glycosides rutin, hyperoside and iso-quercitin (Husain et al,1992). “Hemidesmine”- a crystallizible principle is found in the volatile oil extracted from roots. Some suggest that it is only a stearoptene. It also contains some starch, saponin and in the suberous layer, tannic acid (Grieve and Leyel, 1992). The root is alterative, febrifuge, antileucorrhoeic, antisyphilitic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, tonic, galactogenic, antidote for scorpion-sting and snake-bite, antidiarrhoeal, blood purifier, antirheumatic and aperitive. Essential oil from root is anti-bacterial and the plant is antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).

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INDIAN SENNA

Cassia senna

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Svarnapatri; Hin: Sanay, Sana Ka Patt; Ben: Sonamukhi; Mal: Sunnamukki, Chonnamukki, Nilavaka; Tam: Nilavirai, Nilavakai; Tel: Netatangedu

Importance Indian Senna or Tinnevelly senna is a shrub very highly esteemed in India for its medicinal value. The leaves are useful in constipation, abdominal disorders, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, splenomegaly, hepatopathy, jaundice, helminthiasis, dyspepsia, cough, bronchitis, typhoid fever, anaemia, tumours and vitiated conditions of pitta and vata (Warrier et al,1994). It is used in Ayurvedic preparations; “Pancha Sakara Churna”, “Shat Sakara Churna” and “Madhu Yastyadi Churna” used for constipation. Its use is widespread in Unani system and some of the important products of this system containing senna are “Itrifal Mulayyin”, “Jawarish Ood Mulayyin”, “Hab Shabyar”, “Sufuf Mulliyin”, “Sharbat Ahmad Shahi”, etc. used as a mild laxative (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution The plant is of Mediterranean origin. It is found in Somalia, Saudi Arabia, parts of Pakistan and Kutch area of Gujarat. It is largely cultivated in Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.

Botany The genus Cassia, belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae, comprises of a number of species, namely, C. senna Linn. syn. C. angustifolia Vahl. C. absus Linn. C. alata Linn. C. auriculata Linn. C. burmanni Wight. syn. C. obovata (Linn.) Collad. C. glauca Lam. C. javanica Linn. C. mimosoides Linn. C. obtusifolia Linn. syn. C. tora Linn. C. occidentalis Linn. C. pumila Lam. C. slamea Lam. C. acutifolia Delile. C. sophera Linn. C. senna is a shrub or undershrub, 60-75cm in height with pale subterete or obtusely angled erect or spreading branches. Leaves are paripinnate. Leaflets are 5-8 in number, ovate-lanceolate and glabrous. Flowers are yellowish, many and arranged in axillary racemes. Fruits are flat legumes, greenish brown to dark brown and nearly smooth (Chopra et al,1980, Warrier et al,1994). In commerce, the leaves and pods obtained from C. senna are known as “ Tinnevelly Senna” and those from C. acutifolia Delile. as “Alexandrian Senna”. The leaves of C. acutifolia are narrower than C. senna, otherwise both resemble to a large extent (Thakur et al, 1989). All the true Sennas have the portions of their leaves unequally divided. In some kinds the lower part of one side is reduced to little more than a line in breadth, while the other is from a quarter to half an inch in breadth. The drug known under the name of East Indian Senna is nearly free from adulteration; and as its properties appear identical with those of the Alexandrian and the price being less, it probably will supersede it in general practice. Its size and shape readily identify it (Graves, 1996).

Agrotechnology The plant requires a mild subtropical climate with warm winters which are free from frost for its growth. Semiarid areas with adequate irrigation facilities are ideal for 150

cultivation. Areas having high rainfall, humidity and poor drainage are not suitable. Light or medium loamy soils with adequate drainage and pH varying from 7.0-8.2 are preferable. In South India both summer and winter crops are possible. The plant is propagated by seeds. The seed rate required is 15-20kg/ha. Seeds are sown in October-November (winter rainfed crop) or in February-March (irrigated crop). Higher seed rate is required for unirrigated crop. Seeds are sown in lines 30cm apart. Application of 5-10t of FYM/ha before planting or raising a green manure crop is beneficial. About 40kg N and 25-50kg P2O5/ha applied as basal dressing and 40kg N/ha applied in 2 split dozes as top dressing gave better yield. While the rainfed crop is grown without irrigation, the irrigated crop requires 5-8 light irrigations during the entire growing season. The crop requires 2-3 weedings and hoeings in order to keep it free from weeds. Alternaria alternata causes leaf spot and dieback but the disease is not serious. In North India, the plant is attacked by the larvae of butterfly Catopsilia pyranthe which can be controlled by planting the crop in March-April instead of June-July. Under irrigated conditions, the first crop is obtained after 90 days of planting. The leaves are stripped by hand when they are fully green, thick and bluish-green in colour. The second crop is taken 4 weeks after the first harvest and the third 4-6 weeks after the second one. The last harvest of leaves is done when the entire crop is harvested along with the pods. Yield under irrigated conditions is nearly1.4t of leaves and 150kg pods/ha and under unirrigated conditions is 500-600kg leaves and 80-100kg pods/ha. The leaves are dried in thin layers under shade so as to retain the green colour and the pods are hung for 10-12 days to get dried. The leaves and pods are cleaned, graded and marketed (Husain et al, 1993).

Properties and Activity Leaves contain glucose, fructose, sucrose and pinnitol. Mucilage consists of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid. Leaves also contain sennosideC(8,8’-diglucoside of rhein-aloe-emodin-dianthrone). Pods contain sennosides A and B, glycoside of anthraquinones rhein and chrysophanic acid. Seeds contain -sitosterol (Husain et al, 1992). Leaves and pods also contain 0.33% -sterol and flavonolskaempferol, kaempferin, and iso-rhamnetin. Sennoside content of C. acutifolia is higher ranging from 2.5% to 4.5% as compared to C. angustifolia ranging from 1.5 % to 2.5%. The purgative activity of Senna is attributed to its sennosides. The pods cause lesser griping than the leaves. Leaf and pod is laxative. The leaves are astringent, bitter, sweet, acrid, thermogenic, cathartic, depurative, liver tonic, anthelmintic, cholagogue, expectorant and febrifuge.

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NAGADANTI San: Danti;

Baliospermum montanum

Hin: Danti;

Mal: Danti, Nagadanti;

Euphorbiaceae

Tam: Nakatanti;

Tel: Nelajidi

Importance Danti or Nagadanti is a stout undershrub with numerous flowers. Root, which is the officinal part, is used in abdominal pain, constipation, calculus, general anasarca, piles, helminthic manifestations, scabies, skin disorders, suppurative ulcers and diseases caused by the morbidity of kapha and pitta. Root paste is applied to painful swellings and piles. Leaves cure asthma and seeds are used in snakebite (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma, 1983). The drug forms an important constituent of preparations like Dantyarishta, Dantiharitakileham, Kaisoraguggulu gulika, etc.(Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Distribution The plant is found throughout the sub-Himalayan tracts from Kashmir to Khasi Hills. It is common in West Bengal, Bihar and Central and Peninsular India.

Botany Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell-Arg. syn. B. axillare Bl., B. polyandrum Wt. belongs to the family Euphrobiaceae. It is a stout under-shrub 0.9-1.8m in height with herbaceous branches from the roots. Leaves are simple, sinuate-toothed, upper ones small, lower ones large and sometimes palmately 3-5 lobed. Flowers are numerous, arranged in axillary racemes with male flowers above and a few females below. Fruits are capsules, 813mm long and obovoid. Seeds are ellipsoid smooth and mottled (Warrier et al,1993).

Agrotechnology The tropical plant is suited to almost all soils. It can be cultivated either as pure crop or intercrop. It is propagated vegetatively by cuttings. About 15-20cm long rooted cuttings are used for planting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and top soil and formed into a mound. On these mounds, rooted cuttings are to be planted at 2 cuttings/mound. Cuttings establish within one month. Weeding is to be carried out at this time. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is beneficial. Irrigation during summer months is preferable. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Roots can be collected at the end of second year. The roots are to be cut and dried in sun before marketing. The yield is about one tonne root/ha (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and Activity Roots contain diterpenes, baliospermin, montanin, phorbol-12-deoxy-13-Opalmitate, phorbol-12-deoxy-16-hydroxy-13-O-palmitate and phorbol-12-deoxy-5hydroxy-13 –myristate (Ogura et al, 1978). Alcoholic extract of plant showed hypotensive activity in experimental animals (Bhakuni et al, 1971). Antilukaemic and cytotoxic activities have been demonstrated in the esters of both 12-deoxyphorbol and 12-deoxy-16hydroxyphorbol, isolated from B. montanum (King-horn, 1979). The roots are acrid, thermogenic, purgative, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, anthelmintic, diuretic, diaphoretic, rubefacient, febrifuge and tonic. Seed is purgative, stimulant, rubefacient and antidote for snakebite. Seed oil is antirheumatic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and wound healing. Root and seed oil is cathartic and antidropsical. Stem is anti-dontalgic.

152

ALSTONIA San: Visaghni, Anadana;

Alstonia venenata Mal: Analivegam;

Tam: Sinnappalai;

Apocynaceae Kan: Addasarpa

Importance Alstonia is a large shrub with straight bole and growing upto about 6m height. The roots are useful in skin diseases, erysipelas, leprosy, cobra bite and other venomous bites, epilepsy, fatigue, fever and otalgia. The fruits are useful in syphilis, insanity and epilepsy. The plant is believed to repel snakes.

Distribution The plant is distributed throughout India in deciduous forests in areas up to 1800m elevation.

Botany Alstonia venenata R.Br., belonging to the family Apocynaceae, is a large shrub to small tree up to 6m in height with greyish brown bark and bright yellow hard and woody root. Leaves are simple, arranged in whorls of 3-6, membranous, lanceolate, margins wavy, finely acuminate, main nerves numerous, close, parallel and united by inter marginal nerve. Flowers are white, arranged in terminal sub umbellate cymes or in racemes. Fruits are fusiform with stalked and beaked follicles, tapering at both ends. Seeds are many flattened with a tuft of hair at each end (Warrier et al, 1993). Other important species belonging to the genus Alstonia are the following.

1. A. scholaris R. Br. This tree is common throughout India. The bark is valuable in debility and after effects of fever, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery and catarrhal fever. The milky juice is applied to ulcers and rheumatic pains, mixed with oil and dropped into ear to relieve earache. Ditanin is the active principle of the bark, possessing powerful febrifuge properties. The bark is astringent, tonic and febrifuge (Nadkarni, 1998).

2. A. spectabilis R. Br. It is a large evergreen tree seen in tropical forests of Andamans. The bark contains alkaloids such as alstonamine, ditamine, echitamine and echitenine (Chopra et al,1980)

Agrotechnology The plant is propagated mainly by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and germinated ones are to be transferred to polybags. About three months old seedlings are used for transplanting. If seeds are not available, thin stem cuttings can be planted in polybags and rooted cuttings used. Pits of size 60cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing, filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and made into a mound. To this mounds seedlings from polybags are to be transplanted. Irrigation is essential during early stages of growth. Application of organic manure every year is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be done. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Flowers are formed in the first year itself. It can be used for medicinal purposes after seven years of growth. Fruits and roots are the economical parts (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and Activity The plant is a rich source of indole alkaloids. Alkaloids are present in various parts. Stem bark and root contain venenatine, alstovenine, 3-dehydroalstovenine and reserpine. Stem bark contains venoxidine (venenatine Nb-oxide), anhydroalstonatine, kopsinine, venalstonine, venalstonidine(venalstonine-6,7-epoxide), echitovenine and veneserpine. Fruits contain echitovenidine, (+)minovincinine, echitoserpidine, echitoserpine, echitoveniline, 11-methoxy echitovonidine, 11-methoxy (-) minovinicinine, echitoserpiline, (-)vincadifformine, 11-methoxy()vincadifformine and venoterpine. Leaves contain echitovenaldine, echitoveniline, alstolenine, deacetylakuammiline, polynuridine, dihydropolynuridine and raucaffrininoline. The yellow tint in bark is because of the presence of 3-alstovenine. A number of indole alkaloids have been further isolated from the plant. In addition to alkaloids fruits contain -amyrin acetate and lupeol ester of -hydroxy acid (Husain et al,1992). The root is bitter, astringent, thermogenic, depurative, antitoxic, febrifuge and anodyne. The alkaloid alstovenine in lower doses exhibited monoamine oxidase inhibitor activity, while in higher doses it showed marked central stimulant effect. Veninatine exhibited reserpine like activity. Alcoholic extract of the fruits showed initial activation effect on acetylcholine esterase, followed alternately by inhibition and activation of the enzyme.

153

PURGING CROTON

Croton tiglium

San: Jepalah, Dantibijah Hin: Jamalgota Tam: Nervalam, Sevalamkottai Tel: Nepala

Ben: Jaypal

Euphorbiaceae Mal: Nirvalam

Importance Purging croton or croton oil plant, a small evergreen tree with separate male and female flowers, is one among the seven poisons described in Ayurveda. The drug is well known for its drastic purgative property. The drug is found to be useful in ascites, anasarca, cold, cough, asthma, constipation, calculus, dropsy, fever and enlargement of the abdominal viscera. The seed paste is a good application for skin diseases, painful swellings and alopacia. The seed-oil is useful in chronic bronchitis, laryngeal affections, arthritis and lock jaw. Misraka-sneham is an important preparation using the drug (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980; Sharma, 1983).

Distribution It is distributed throughout North India. It is cultivated in Assam, West Bengal and South India.

Botany Croton tiglium Linn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is a small evergreen tree, 4.56.0m in height with ash coloured smooth bark and young shoots sprinkled with stellate hairs. Leaves are oblong to ovate-lanceolate, obtuse or rounded at the 2-glanded box, acuminate, membraneous, yellowish green and minutely toothed. Flowers are small, unisexual, males on slender pedicels, females larger and on short thick pedicels. Fruits are ovoid or oblong trigonous capsules. Seeds are smooth, testa black and enclosing reddish brown oily endosperm (Warrier et al,1994). Other species belonging to the genus Croton are as follows: C. aromaticus Linn. C. caudatus Geisel C. jouera Roxb. C. malabaricus Bedd. C. oblongifolius Roxb. C. polyandrus Roxb. syn. Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg. C. reticulatus(Chopra et al, 1980)

Agrotechnology The plant is propagated by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and about 2 months old seedlings are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and formed into a mound. The seedlings are to be planted on these mounds. Irrigation during summer months is beneficial. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is desirable. Weeding is to be carried out one month after transplanting. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Fruits are formed at the end of first year. Fruits when ripen and start to crack are to be collected, dried in sun, then the outer shell is removed and again dried for one day before marketing (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and activity Oil contains phorbol myristate acetate ( Husain et al, 1992). Seeds contain upto 20% protein and 30-50% lipids. Iso-guanine-D-ribose (crotoniside) and saccharose were isolated from the seeds. In fractionation of croton oil, liquid-liquid distribution procedures proved to be the separation tools of choice. The per hydrogenated parent hydrocarbon of phorbol is a perhydrocyclopropabenzulene called tigliane and phorbol is 1, 1a, 1b, 4, 4a, 7a, 7b, 8, 9, 9adecahydro-4a, 7, 9, 9a-tetrahydroxy-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1, 1, 6, 8 tetramethyl-5-Hcyclopropa[3,4] benz [1.2-e]azulen-5-one. Phorbol, a tetracylic diterpene with a 5, 7, 6 and 3membered ring has 6 oxygen functions. Phorbol accounts for 3.4% and 4- deoxy- 4- phorbol for 0.29% of the weight of croton oil. Twenty-five phorbol-12, 13-diesters have been detected (Hecker et al, 1974). A toxin croton 1, mol. wt 72,000 has been isolated from the seeds (Lin et al, 1978). Phorbol myristate acetate activates nitroblue tetrazolium reduction in human polymorphs. Seed and oil is purgative, rubefacient and anti-dote for snakebite. The seeds and oil are acrid, bitter, thermogenic, emollient, drastic purgative, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, vermifuge, deterent, diaphoretic, expectorant, vesicant, irritant and rubefacient.

154

ASHOKA San:Asoka, Gatasokah; Tam: Asogam;

Saraca asoca

Caesalpiniaceae

Hin:Asok, Asoka; Ben:Ashok; Mal:Asokam; Kan:Asokada, Aksunkara; Tel: Asokamu, Vanjalamu

Importance Ashoka, the sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists, possesses varied medicinal uses. The bark is useful in dyspepsia, fever, dipsia, burning sensation, visceromegaly, colic, ulcers, menorrhagia, metropathy, leucorrhoea and pimples. The leaf juice mixed with cumin seeds is used for treating stomachalagia. The floweres are considered to be uterine tonic and are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, syphilis, cervical adinitis, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, haemorrhoids, dysentery, scabies in children and inflammation. The well-known Ayurvedic preparations are ”Ashokarishta” and “Ashokaghrita”. Ashokarishta is prescribed in leucorrhoea, haematuria, menorrhagia and other diseases of genitourinary system of females.

Distribution Ashoka is found almost throughout India, except North-Western India, upto 750m. It is also found in the Andaman Islands.

Botany Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde. syn. S. indica auct. non Linn. is a medium sized evergreen tree growing upto 9m height with numerous spreading and drooping glabrous branches. Leaves are pinnate, 30-60cm long having 2-3 pairs of lanceolate leaflets. Flowers are orange or orange yellow, arranged in dense corymbs and very fragrant. Fruits are flat black pods, leathery and compressed with 4-8 seeds/pod. Seeds are ellipsoid oblong and compressed. The bark is dark brown to grey or black with a warty surface. The thickness varies from 5mm to 10mm. The entire cut surface turns reddish on exposure to air. Polyalthia longifolia (Annonaceae) is equated with the name Asoka by some (Kapoor & Mitra, 1979; Chunekar, 1982) and is often used as an adulterant of the genuine Asoka bark or as a substitute (Warrier et al,1996).

Agrotechnology Asoka grows well in areas with well distributed rainfall and in slightly shady areas. Asoka requires soil rich in organic mater and moisture. The best season of planting is June-July. It is also grown in summer, if irrigation facilities are available. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are formed usually during February-April. Seeds are collected when they are ripen and fall down and are sown after soaking in water for 12 hours on the prepared beds. Seeds germinate within 20 days. The seeds are then planted in polybags. 2-month-old seedlings from the polybags are used for transplanting. Square shaped pits of 60cm depth are taken at 3m spacing and filled with topsoil, sand and dried cowdung. On this the seedlings are planted. Application of FYM at 10kg/tree/year is highly beneficial. Chemical fertilisers are not usually applied. Irrigation during summer months is essential. No serious pests or diseases are generally noted in this crop. If properly cultivated, Asoka can be cut after 20 years and the bark collected. It is cut at a height of 15cm from the soil level. If given irrigation and fertilisers, the cut wood will sprout again and harvested again after 5 years. This can be continued. When it is difficult to cut the tree, the bark can be peeled off from one side first. When the bark grows and cover that part, the other side can be peeled off. This is also continued (Prasad et al, 1997; Karshakasree, 1998).

Properties and Activity Flowers give -sitosterol, flavonoids and flavone glycosides-quercetin, kaempferol-3-O-D-glucoside, quercetin-3-O--D-glucoside. The anthocyanins present are pelargonidin-3, 5diglucoside and cyanadin-3, 5-diglucoside. Bark yields catechol and sterols-(24)-24-methyl cholest-5-en-3-ol, (22E, 24)-24-ethylcholesta-5, 22-dien-3 -ol and (24)-24-ethyl cholest-5-en3-ol, a wax containing n-alkanes, esters and free primary alcohols. Alcoholic extract and glycoside P2 from stem bark is oxytoxic. Aerial part is CNS active, hypothermic, CNS depressant and diuretic. Stem bark is anticancerous, has spasmodic action on rabbit intestine and cardiotonic action in frog and dog. Seed is antifungal. Stem bark is astringent, antileucorrhoeic, antibilious and uterine sedative. Flower is uterine tonic, antidiabetic and antisyphilitic. Stem bark and flower is antibilious (Husain et al, 1992).

155

GREEN CHIRETTA Acanthaceae San: Bhunimbah, Kiratatiktah Mal: Nilaveppu, Kiriyattu

Andrographis Hin: Kakamegh, Kalpanath Tam: Nilavempu

paniculata Ben: Kalmegh Kan: Kreata

Importance Kalmegh, the Great or Green Chiretta is a branched annual herb. It is useful in hyperdipsia, burning sensation, wounds, ulcers, chronic fever, malarial and intermittent fevers, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, skin diseases, leprosy, pruritis, intestinal worms, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al, 1993). It is used to overcome sannipata type of fever, difficulty in breathing, hemopathy due to the morbidity of kapha and pitta, burning sensation, cough, oedema, thirst, skin diseases, fever, ulcer and worms. It is also useful in acidity and liver complaints (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1962). The important preparations using the drug are Tiktakagheta, Gorocandi gulika, Candanasava, Panchatiktam kasaya, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). A preparation called “Alui” is prepared by mixing powdered cumin (Cuminium cyminum) and large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) in the juice of this plant and administered for the treatment of malaria (Thakur et al, 1989). It is also a rich source of minerals.

Distribution The plant is distributed throughout the tropics. It is found in the plains of India from U.P to Assam, M.P., A.P, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, also cultivated in gardens.

Botany Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall ex. Nees belongs to the family Acanthaceae. It is an erect branched annual herb, 0.3-0.9m in height with quadrangular branches. Leaves are simple, lanceolate, acute at both ends, glabrous, with 4-6 pairs of main nerves. Flowers are small, pale but blotched and spotted with brown and purple distant in lax spreading axillary and terminal racemes or panicles. Calyx-lobes are glandular pubescent with anthers bearded at the base. Fruits are linear capsules and acute at both ends. Seeds are numerous, yellowish brown and sub-quadrate (Warrier et al,1993). Another species of Andrographis is A. echioides (Linn.) Nees. It is found in the warmer parts of India. The plant is a febrifuge and diuretic. It contains flavone-echiodinin and its glucoside-echioidin (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology The best season of planting Andrographis is May-June. The field is to be ploughed well, mixed with compost or dried cowdung and seedbeds of length 3m, breadth 1/2m and 15cm height are to be taken at a distance of 3m. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are to be soaked in water for 6 hours before sowing. Sowing is to be done at a spacing of 20cm. Seeds may germinate within 15-20 days. Two weedings, first at one month after planting and the second at 2 month after planting are to be carried out. Irrigation during summer months is beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Flowering commences from third month onwards. At this stage, plant are to be collected, tied into small bundles and sun-dried for 4-5 days. Whole plant is the economic part and the yield is about 1.25t dried plants/ha (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Leaves contain two bitter substances lactone “andrographolid” and “kalmeghin”. The ash contains sodium chloride and potassium salts. Plant is very rich in chlorophyte. Kalmeghin is the active principle that contains 0.6% alkaloid of the crude plant. The plant contains diterpenoids, andrographolide, 14-deoxy-11-oxo-andrographolide, 14-deoxy11,12-dihydroandrographolide, 14-deoxy andrographolide and neoandrographolide (Allison et al, 1968). The roots give flavones-apigenin-7,4-dio-O-methyl ether, 5-hydroxy-7,8,2’,3’156

tetramethoxyflavone, andrographin and panicolin and -sitosterol (Ali et al, 1972; Govindachari et al, 1969). Leaves contain homoandrographolide, andrographosterol and andrographone. The plant is vulnerary, antipyretic, antiperiodic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, depurative, sudorific, anthelmintic, digestive, stomachic, tonic, febrifuge and cholagogue. The plant is antifungal, antityphoid, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic and cholinergic. Shoot is antibacterial and leaf is hypotensive(Garcia et al, 1980). This is used for the inflammation of the respiratory tract. In China, researchers have isolated the andrographolide from which soluble derivative such as 14-deoxy-11, 12-dehydro-andrographolide which forms the subject of current pharmacological and clinical studies. Apigenin 7,4’-O-dimethyl ether isolated from A. paniculata exhibits dose dependent, antiulcer activity in shay rat, histamine induced ulcer in guinea pigs and aspirin induced ulcers in rats. A crude substance isolated from methanolic extract of leaves has shown hypotensive activity. Pre-treatment of rats with leaf (500mg/kg) or andrographolide (5mg/kg) orally prevented the carbon tetrachloride induced increase of blood serum levels of glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase in liver and prevented hepatocellular membrane.

157

GARDEN RUE

Ruta chalepensis

Rutaceae

San: Gucchapatra; Hin: Pismaram, Sadab, Satari; Ben: Ermul; Mal: Aruta, Nagatali; Tam: Aruvadam, Arvada; Kan: Sadabu, Nagadali; soppu, Simesdanu; Tel: Sadapa, Aruda Importance Common rue or Garden rue also known as Herb of Grace due to its service in the Roman Catholic Church for sprinkling the holy water among the congregation, is an aromatic perennial herb. The plant is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, strangury, fever, flatulence, colic, amenorrhoea, epilepsy and hysteria. The oil acts as a stimulant for uterine and nervous systems. The fresh leaves are used for rheumatalgia. The juice obtained from the leaves is given to children for helminthic infections and is good for odontalgia and otalgia (Warrier et al, 1996). The dried leaves, powdered and combined with aromatics, are given as a remedy for dyspepsia and with the fresh leaves a tincture is made which is used as an external remedy in the first stages of paralysis (Nadkarni, 1998).

Distribution The plant is a native of South Europe and it is found in subtropical countries. It is commonly cultivated in Indian gardens.

Botany Ruta chalepensis Linn.syn. R. graveolens Linn. var. angustifolia Sensu Hook. f. belongs to the family Rutaceae. It is an aromatic perennial herb growing upto 75cm height. Leaves are compound, shortly petiolate with ultimate segments oblong or obovate-oblong. Flowers are yellow. Fruits are capsules and shortly pedicelled (Warrier et al, 1996).

Agrotechnology The plant is suited to areas which are about 1000m above mean sea level and with moderate rainfall and sunlight. The plant can be propagated either by seeds or stem cuttings. Seeds are to be sown in seedbeds. Stem cuttings of length 20-25cm are to be planted in polybags for rooting. About 3-4 months old seedlings can be transplanted to pots and harvested when plants attain 6-8 months age. In highlands land is to be ploughed to a fine tilth, mixed with organic manure and seedlings are to be transplanted at a spacing of 45cm between plants. Irrigation is essential during summer months. Regular weeding is to be done. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests and diseases. Harvesting commences from sixth month onwards. The economic part is the whole plant and the oil extracted from it (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Roots contain coumarins-xanthyletin and (-)-byakangelicin. The alkaloids are rutacridone-epoxide, gravacridonol and its monomethyl ether, gravacridonchlorine, furacridone, 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylacridone, iso-gravacridonechlorine, dictamine, r-fragarine and skimmianine. Skimmianine is also present in leaves and stem. Leaves and stem also contain graveolinine (1-methyl-2(3’,4’-methylenedioxyphenol)-4-methoxyquinoline). Aerial parts give coumarins bergapten, xanthotoxin and psoralen. Coumarinimperatin has also been reported from the plant. Herb contains alkaloids such as kokusagenine, rutamine(methylgraveoline) and graveoline(1-methyl-2(3’,4’methylenedioxyphenyl)-4-quinoline). Tissue culture of the plant gives furacridone alkaloids-1-hydroxyrutacridone-epoxide, rutagravin and gravacridonol. Gravacridondiol and its glucoside have been obtained from the root tissue culture. The essential oil from leaves, stem and root yielded aliphatic ketones including 2-nonanone (10-35%), undecyl-2acetate (0.5-15%), 2-nonyl acetate (trace-10%), nonylacetate, nonanol, 2-nonylpropionate, 2-nonylpropionate, 2-undecanol and its esters. The oil from roots gave pregeijerene also. The plant is spasmolytic which is due to the presence of bergapten, xanthotoxin, the essential oil and a coumarin. It is also antispasmodic, emmenagogue, irritant, abortifacient and anti-bacterial. Leaf is analgesic, antirheumatic, antihysteric and anthelmintic (Husain et al, 1992). 158

WORM KILLER

Aristolochia bracteolata

San: Kitamari Hin: Kiramar, Kitamar Tam: Atutinnappalai

Aristolochiaceae

Mal: Attuthottappala, Atuthinnappala

Importance The bracteated birthwort or worm killer is a perennial prostrate herb. As the name suggests it is a killer of intestinal worms especially roundworms. It is also used in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, constipation, inflammations, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, foul ulcers, boils, syphilis, gonorrhoea, dyspepsia, colic, skin diseases, eczema, artheralgia and intermittent fevers. The plant is an insect repellent due to the presence of aristolochic acid, which is poisonous to man and livestock. Plant is also used against scorpion sting. Seeds ground in water to form a lotion and used for softening hair. Powdered root is used in fertility control.

Distribution The plant is found in Sri Lanka, Arabian countries and tropical Africa. In India, the plant is grown in Deccan and Carnatic Plateau.

Botany Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. syn. A. bracteata Retz. belongs to the family Aristolochiaceae. It is a perennial prostrate herb with weak, glabrous stems. Leaves are simple, alternate, reniform or broadly ovate, cordate at the base with a wide sinus upto 7.5cm in diameter, reticulately veined. Flowers are solitary with a large sessile orbicular bract at the base. Perianth tube is cylindric with dark purple tip having revolute margins. Fruits are oblong-ellipsoid 12-ribbed glabrous capsules. Seeds are deltoid with slightly cordate base (Warrier et al, 1993) Another important species belonging to the genus Aristolochia is A. indica Linn. The plant grows wild throughout the low hills and plains of India from Nepal to West Bengal and South India. It is a valuable anti-dote to snake bite and to bites of poisonous insects as scorpion, etc. It is given in cases of cholera and diarrhoea after macerating with black pepper corns. The juice of the leaves has stimulant, tonic and antiperiodic properties.

Agrotechnology Shady areas and well-drained soils are most suited to Aristolochia. The plant can be seed propagated. 3-month-old seedlings raised in polybags are required for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at a distance of 3m and filled with sand, topsoil and dried cowdung. To these pits, the seedlings are to be transplanted. Regular irrigation and organic manure application is beneficial. The plant is to be trailed on iron wires tied to poles. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Plant attains good spread within one year. Leaves can be collected for the next 10 years. Roots and leaves constitute the economic parts (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity Leaves and fruits yield ceryl alcohol, -sitosterol and aristolochic acid. Root contains aristolochic acid. Seeds give an alkaloid magnoflorine, aristolochic acid, fatty oil comprising palmitic, stearic, lignoseric and oleic acids and -sitosterol. The plant is anthelmintic, cathartic, antiperiodic and emmenagogue. Leaf is antigonorrhoeic, larvicidal and used in eczema on children’s leg and ulcers. The plant is oxytocic (Husain et al,1992).

159

FICUS

Ficus spp.

Moraceae

The genus Ficus constitutes an important group of trees with immense medicinal value. It is a sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists. Among the varied number of species, the most important ones are the four trees that constitute the group “Nalpamaram”, namely, F .racemosa, F. microcarpa, F. benghalensis and F. religiosa (Athi, Ithi, Peral and Arayal respectively).

1. Ficus racemosa Linn. syn. F. glomerata Roxb. Eng: Cluster fig, Country fig San: Udumbarah, Sadaphalah Hin: Gular, Umar Ben: Jagya dumur Mal, Tam, Kan: Athi Tel: Udambaramu, Paidi Gular fig, Cluster fig or Country fig, which is considered sacred, has golden coloured exudate and black bark. It is distributed all over India. Its roots are useful in treating dysentery. The bark is useful as a wash for wounds, highly efficacious in threatened abortions and recommended in uropathy. Powdered leaves mixed with honey are given in vitiated condition of pitta. A decoction of the leaves is a good wash for wounds and ulcers. Tender fruits (figs) are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, diarrhoea, dyspepsia and haemorrhages. The latex is administered in haemorrhoids and diarrhoea (Warrier et al, 1995). The ripe fruits are sweet, cooling and are used in haemoptysis, thirst and vomiting (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer et al, 1957; Moos, 1976). Nalpamaradi coconut oil, Candanasava, Valiya Arimedastaila, Dinesavalyadi Kuzhambu, Abhrabhasma, Valiya candanaditaila, etc. are some important preparations using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994). It is a moderate to large-sized spreading laticiferous, deciduous tree without many prominent aerial roots. Leaves are dark green and ovate or elliptic. Fruit receptacles are 2-5cm in diameter, sub-globose or pyriform arranged in large clusters on short leafless branches arising from main trunk or large branches. Figs are smooth or rarely covered with minute soft hairs. When ripe, they are orange, dull reddish or dark crimson. They have a pleasant smell resembling that of cedar apples. The bark is rusty brown with a fairly smooth and soft surface, the thickness varying from 0.5-2cm according to the age of the trunk or bark. Surface is with minute separating flakes of white tissue. Texture is homogeneously leathery (Warrier et al, 1995). Stem-bark gives gluanol acetate, -sitosterol, leucocyanidin-3-O--D-glucopyrancoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O--D-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin -3-O--L-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, ceryl behenate, lupeol acetate and -amyrin acetate. Stem- bark is hypoglycaemic and antiprotozoal. Gall is CVS active. Bark is tonic and used in rinder pest diseases of cattle. Root is antidysenteric and antidiabetic. Leaf is antibilious. Latex is antidiarrhoeal and used in piles. Bark and syconium is astringent and used in menorrhagia (Husain et al, 1992).

2. Ficus microcarpa Linn. f. syn. F. retusa auct. Non. Linn. San: Plaksah; Hin, Ben: Kamarup; Mal: Ithi, Ithiyal; Tam: Kallicci, Icci; Kan: Itti; Tel: Plaksa Plaksah is the Ficus species with few branches and many adventitious roots growing downward. It is widely distributed throughout India and in Sri Lanka, S. China, Ryuku Isles and Britain. Plakasah is one of the five ingredients of the group panchvalkala i.e, five barks, the decoction of which is extensively used to clear ulcers and a douche in leucorrhoea in children. This decoction is administered externally and internally with satisfactory results. Plaksah is acclaimed as cooling, astringent, and curative of raktapitta doshas, ulcers, skin diseases, burning sensation, inflammation and oedema. It is found to have good healing property and is used in preparation of oils and ointments for external application in the treatment of ulcers (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957). The stem-bark is used to prepare Usirasava, Gandhataila, Nalpamaradi taila, Valiya marmagulika, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The bark and leaves are used in wounds, ulcers, bruises, flatulent colic, hepatopathy, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, haemaorrhages, erysipelas, dropsy, ulcerative stomatitis, haemoptysis, psychopathy, leucorrhoea and coporrhagia (Warrier et al,1995) F. microcarpa is a large glabrous evergreen tree with few aerial roots. Leaves are shortpetioled, 5-10cm long, 2-6cm wide and apex shortly and bluntly apiculate or slightly emarginate. Main lateral nerves are not very prominent and stipules are lanceolate. Fruit receptacles are sessile and globose occurring in axillary pairs. It is yellowish when ripe without any characteristic smell. Bark is dark grey or brown with a smooth surface except for the lenticels. Outer bark is corky and crustaceous thin and firmly adherent to inner tissue. Inner bark is light and flesh coloured with firbrous texture (Warrier et al, 1995). It is also equated with many other species of the genus. viz. 160

F. infectoria Roxb., F. arnottiana Miq, F. lacor Buch-Ham and F. talboti King (cf. Nadkarni, 1954, Singh and Chunekar, 1972; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979; Sharma, 1983). The bark contains tannin, wax and saponin. Bark is antibilious. Powdered leaves and bark is found very good in rheumatic headache. The bark and leaves are astringent, refrigerant, acrid and stomachic.

3. Ficus benghalensis Linn. Eng: Banyan tree; San: Nyagrodhah, Vatah; Hin: Bat, Bargad; Ben: Bar, Bot; Mar: Vada; Mal: Peral, Vatavriksham; Tam: Alamaram, Peral; Kan: Ala; Tel: Peddamarri; Guj: Vad Banyan tree is a laticiferous tree with reddish fruits, which is wound round by aerial adventitious roots that look like many legs. It is found in the Sub-Himalayan tract and Peninsular India. It is also grawn throughout India. It is widely used in treatment of skin diseases with pitta and rakta predominance. Stem-bark, root -bark, aerial roots, leaves, vegetative buds and milky exudate are used in medicine. It improves complexion, cures erysepelas, burning sensation and vaginal disorders, while an infusion of the bark cures dysentery, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, nervous disorders and reduces blood sugar in diabetes. A decoction of the vegetative buds in milk is beneficial in haemorrhages. A paste of the leaves is applied externally to abcesses and wounds to promote suppuration, while that of young aerial roots cure pimples. Young twigs when used as a tooth brush strengthen gum and teeth (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss,1976). The drug forms an important constituent of formulations like Nalpamaradi Coconut oil, Saribadyasava, Kumkumadi taila, Khadira gulika, Valiyacandanadi taila, Candanasava, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The aerial roots are useful in obstinate vomiting and leucorrhoea and are used in osteomalacia of the limbs. The buds are useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. The latex is useful in neuralgia, rheumatism, lumbago, bruises, nasitis, ulorrhagia, ulitis, odontopathy, haemorrhoids, gonorrhoea, inflammations, cracks of the sole and skin diseases (Warrier et al, 1995). It is a very large tree up to 30m in height with widely spreading branches bearing many aerial roots functioning as prop roots. Bark is greenish white. Leaves are simple, alternate, arranged often in clusters at the ends of branches. They are stipulate, 10-20cm long and 5-12.5cm broad, broadly elliptic to ovate, entire, coriaceous, strongly 3-7 ribbed from the base. The fruit receptacles are axillary, sessile, seen in pairs globose, brick red when ripe and enclosing male, female and gall flowers. Fruits are small, crustaceous, achenes, enclosed in the common fleshy receptacles. The young bark is somewhat smooth with longitudinal and transverse row of lenticels. In older bark, the lenticels are numerous and closely spaced; outer bark easily flakes off. The fresh cut surface is pink or flesh coloured and exudes plenty of latex. The inner most part of the bark adjoining the wood is nearly white and fibrous (Warrier et al, 1995). The bark yields flavanoid compounds A, B and C; A and C are identified as different forms of a leucoanthocyanidin and compound B a leucoanthocyanin. All the 3 were effective as hypoglycaemic agents. Leaves give friedelin, -sitosterol, flavonoids- quercetin-3-galactoside and rutin. Heart wood give tiglic acid ester of  taraxasterol. Bark is hypoglycemic, tonic, astringent, antidiarrhoeal and antidiabetic. Latex is antirheumatic. Seed is tonic. Leaf is diaphoretic. Root fibre is antigonorrhoeic. Aerial root is used in debility and anaemic dysentery (Husain et al, 1992).

.4. Ficus religiosa Linn. Eng:Peepal tree, Sacred fig; San:Pippalah, Asvatthah; Hin:Pippal, Pipli, Pipar; Mal:Arayal Ben: Asvatha; Tam: Arasu, Asvattam; Kan: Aswatha; Tel: Ravi; Mar: Ashvata, Pimpala Peepal tree or Sacred fig is a large deciduous tree with few or no aerial roots. It is common throughout India, often planted in the vicinity of the temples. An aqueous extract of the bark has an antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. It is used in the treatment of gonorrhoea, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids and gastrohelcosis. A paste of the powdered bark is a good absorbent for inflammatory swellings. It is also good for burns. Leaves and tender shoots have purgative properties and are also recommended for wounds and skin diseases. Fruits are laxative and digestive. The dried fruit pulverized and taken in water cures asthma. Seeds are refrigerant and laxative. The latex is good for neuralgia, inflammations and haemorrhages (Warrier et al, 1995). Decoction of the bark if taken in honey subdues vatarakta (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). The important

161

preparations using the drug are Nalpamaradi taila, Saribadyasava, Candanasava, Karnasulantaka, Valiyamarma gulika etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994). It is a large deciduous tree with few or no aerial roots. It is often epiphytic with the drooping branches bearing long petioled, ovate, cordate shiny leaves. Leaves are bright green, the apex produced into a linear-lanceolate tail about half as long as the main portion of the blade. The receptacles occurring in pairs and are axillary, depressed globose, smooth and purplish when ripe. The bark is grey or ash coloured with thin or membranous flakes and is often covered with crustose lichen patches. The outer bark is not of uniform thickness, the middle bark in sections appear as brownish or light reddish brown. The inner part consists of layers of light yellowish or orange brown granular tissue (Warrier et al, 1995). Bark gives -sitosterol and its glucoside. Bark is hypoglycaemic. Stem bark is antiprotozoal, anthelmintic and antiviral. Bark is astringent, antigonorrheic, febrifuge, aphrodisiac and antidysenteric. Syconium, leaf and young shoot is purgative (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology Ficus species can be cultivated in rocky areas, unused lands, or other wastelands of the farmyard. The plant is vegetatively propagated by stem cuttings. A few species are also seed propagated. Stem cuttings of pencil thickness taken from the branches are to be kept for rooting. Rooted cuttings are to be transplanted to prepared pits. No regular manuring is required. Irrigation is not a must as a plant is hardy. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Bark can be collected after 15 years. Ficus species generally has an economic life span of more than hundred years. Hence bark can be regularly collected from the tree. Root, bark, leaves, fruits and latex form the economic parts (Prasad et al,1995).

162

WEST INDIAN MEDLAR San: Bakulah

Mimusops elengi

Hin: Bakul, Maulsiri

Tam: Magilam, Ilanci Barsoli, Bolsari

Tel: Pogada

Ben: Bakul

Sapotaceae Mal: Ilanji, Elanji

Kan: Pagademara Guj:

Importance Spanish cherry, West Indian Medlar or Bullet wood tree is an evergreen tree with sweet-scented flowers having ancient glamour. Garlands made of its flowers are ever in good demand due to its long lasting scent. Its bark is used as a gargle for odontopathy, ulitis and ulemorrhagia. Tender stems are used as tooth brushes. It is also useful in urethrorrhoea, cystorrhoea, diarrhoea and dysentery. Flowers are used for preparing a lotion for wounds and ulcers. Powder of dried flowers is a brain tonic and is useful as a snuff to relieve cephalgia. Unripe fruit is used as a masticatory and will help to fix loose teeth. Seeds are used for preparing suppositories in cases of constipation especially in children (Warrier et al,1995). The bark and seed coat are used for strengthening the gum and enter into the composition of various herbal tooth powders, under the name of “Vajradanti”, where they may be used along with tannin-containing substances like catechu (Acacia catechu), pomegranate (Punica granatum) bark, etc. The bark is used as snuff for high fever accompanied by pains in various parts of the body. The flowers are considered expectorant and smoked in asthma. A lotion prepared from unripe fruits and flowers is used for smearing on sores and wounds. In Ayurveda, the important preparation of Mimusops is “Bakuladya Taila”, applied on gum and teeth for strengthening them, whereas in Unani system, the bark is used for the diseases of genitourinary system of males (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution It is cultivated in North and Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. It is grown as an avenue tree in many parts of India.

Botany Mimusops elengi Linn. belongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is an evergreen tree with dark grey fissured bark and densely spreading crown. Leaves are oblong, glabrous and leathery with wavy margins. Flowers are white, fragrant, axillary, solitary or fascicled. Fruits are ovoid or ellipsoid berries. Seeds are 1-2 per fruit, ovoid, compressed, greyish brown and shiny (Warrier et al, 1995). Other important species belonging to the genus Mimusops are M. hexandra Roxb. and M. kauki Linn. syn. Manilkara kauki Dub.(Chopra et al, 1980).

Agrotechnology Mimusops prefers moist soil rich in organic matter for good growth. The plant is propagated by seeds. Fruits are formed in October-November. Seeds are to be collected and dried. Seeds are to be soaked in water for 12 hours without much delay and sown on seedbeds. Viability of seeds is less. After germination they are to be transferred to polybags. Pits of size 45cm cube are to be taken and filled with 5kg dried cowdung and top soil. To these pits, about 4 months old seedlings from the polybags are to be transplanted with the onset of monsoon. Addition of 10kg FYM every year is beneficial. Any serious pests or diseases do not attack the plant. Flowering commences from fourth year onwards. Bark, flowers, fruit and seeds are the economic parts.

Properties and Activity -sitosterol and its glucoside, -spina-sterol, quercitol, taraxerol and lupeol and its acetate are present in the aerial parts as well as the roots and seeds. The aerial parts in addition gave quercetin, dihydroquercetin, myricetin, glycosides, hederagenin, ursolic acid, hentriacontane and carotene. The bark contained an alkaloid consisting largely of a tiglate ester of a base with a mass spectrum identical to those of laburinine and iso-retronecanol and a saponin also which on hydrolysis gave -amyrin and brassic acid. Seed oil was comprised of capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, oleic and linoleic acids. Saponins from seed are spermicidal and spasmolytic. The aerial part is diuretic. Extract of flower (1mg/kg body weight) showed positive diuretic action in dogs. Bark is tonic and febrifuge. Leaf is an antidote for snakebite. Pulp of ripe fruit is antidysenteric. Seed is purgative. Bark and pulp of ripe fruit is astringent (Husain et al, 1992).

163

HOLOSTEMMA

Holostemma ada-kodien

Asclepiadaceae

San: Jivanti; Hin: Chirvel, Charivel; Mal: Atapathiyan, Atapotiyan, Atakotiyan; Tam: Palaikkirai; Tel: Palagurugu; Mar: Dudurli, Shidodi; Guj: Kharner, Khiravel

Importance Holostemma is a twining shrub with large flowers. The roots of Holostemma are useful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, cough, burning sensation, stomachalgia, constipation, fever and tridoshas. The leaves, flowers and fruits are eaten as vegetable. The root is also used in spermatorrhoea. It is used in preparations of Vidaryadiganam, Dhanwandharam thaila, Manasamithravatakam, Balarishta and Anuthaila. It is also useful in eye diseases and it imparts resistance to diseases.

Distribution The plant occurs in tropical countries. In India, it is found in Himalayas, Dehradun, Konkan, Bombay, Deccan, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu. It grows over hedges and in open forests especially on the lower slopes of the hills. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka, Burma and W. China.

Botany Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. syn. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum., Holostemma rheedii Wall. belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. It is a laticiferous twining shrub with large conspicuous flowers. Leaves are simple, opposite and cordate. Flowers are purple, arranged in axillary umbellate cymes. Fruits are thick follicles, 9 cm long, cylindrical and bluntly pointed. The roots are long upto 1 m or more, irregularly twisted, thick and cylindrical. When dry it is yellowish brown to brown black in colour with nearly smooth surface bearing white scars and small depressions. A mature root is about 1-2 cm thick when extracted for use (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology Holostemma prefers a tropical climate. The plant is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings, but mainly by seeds. The seeds are collected from the plant in NovemberDecember before being dispersed. Seeds are cleaned, dried and stored for sowing. The stored seeds after soaking in water for 4-5 hours are sown in the seedbeds. About one month old seedlings are then planted in polybags of size 14x10cm which are filled with soil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio, respectively. Polybags should be kept in shade and irrigated. About 1-1.5 month old seedlings are ready for transplanting. Pits of 30cm cube size are taken at 1-1.2m distance and filled with 10kg dried cowdung and sand. This is covered with surface soil and formed into a mound. Seedlings are transplanted on to the mounds from the polybags carefully. Regular irrigation is to be given till flowering. To aid in trailing, staking is given one month after planting. Flowering and fruiting occurs in November-December. Harvesting can be done at the end of second year when the vines start drying up. Harvesting is done by digging up the tubers. The tubers are cut into pieces of 10cm length and dried in sun before sale (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity Holostemma tubers give -amyrin, lupeol and -sitosterol. Alanine, aspartic acid, glycine, serine, threonine and valine were detected chromatographically (Hussain et al, 1992). The root is antidiabetic, antigonorrhoeic, bechic, alterative, tonic, lactative, ophthalmic, emollient, stimulant, aphrodisiac, expectorant and galactagogue.

164

BLACH MUSALE

Curculigo orchioides

Amaryllidaceae

San: Musali; Hin: Kalimusali, Mushali; Ben: Talamuli; Mal: Nilappana; Guj: Musalikand Tam: Nilapanai; Tel: Nelatadi Kelangu; Kan: Neladali

Importance Musali is a small, geophilous herb, the tuberous rootstock of which is used as a rejuvenating and aphrodisiac drug. It cures morbid vata and pitta, improves complexion and is useful in general debility, deafness, cough, asthma, piles, skin diseases, impotence, jaundice, urinary disorders, leucorrhoea and menorrhagia (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1963; Mooss, 1978). Rootstock is the officinal part and it enters into the Ayurvedic formulations like Vidaryadighrta, Vidaryadi lehya, Marmagulika, Musalyadi churna etc. The Pharmacognosy of C. orchioides has been discussed by Aiyer, Kolammal (1963), Raghunathan, and Mitra (1982). A bibliographical study on C. orchioides has been done by Pandey et al (1983). Distribution The plant is found in all districts of India from near sea level to 2300m altitude, especially in rock crevices and laterite soil. It has been recorded to occur in the sub tropical Himalayas from Kumaon eastwards ascending to 1800m, the Khasia hills, Bengal, Asssam, Konkan, Kanara, the western peninsula and Madras extending south as far as a Cape Comerin. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka, Japan, Malaysia and Australia.

Botany Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. syn. C. malabarica Wight, C. brevifolia Dryand, Hypoxis dulcis Stand belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae. Musali is a small herbaceous plant with cylindrical rootstock. Leaves are simple, sessile, crowded on the short stem with sheathing leaf bases. Flowers are bright yellow. Seeds are black, deeply grooved in wavy lines. A detailed description of the plant is as follows (Victoria, 1998). Rootstock is straight, cylindrical, tuberous, 5-22cm long, 0.5-0.8 cm thick, brownish surfaces marked with closely spaced prominent transverse wrinkles in the upper or basal half. It bears a few stout lateral roots of 5 or more cm long. Lateral roots are dull white in colour and spongy externally. The fresh cut surfaces of the rootstock has a starch white colour and mucilaginous. A few fibrous roots also occur. Leaves are sessile or short petiolate with sheathing bases, 15-45x1.2-2.5 cm size, linear or linear lanceolate, membranous, glabrouus or sparsely sofly hairy and plicate in bud. The leaf tips when contacts the soil, develops roots and produce adventitious buds. Inflorescence is axillary, scapose racemose, the scape very short and hidden among the bases of leaves underground, clavte, flattened with the pedicels, bracts and the ovary concealed in the leaf sheaths. The lower big flowers on the scape are mostly bisexual and the upper small ones staminate. Flowers are epigynous bright yellow, bisexual or unisxual with lanceolate, membranous bract.. Perianth gamophyllous, rotate & six lobed, locate at the top of a slender sterile long extension of the ovary by means of which the perianth is exposed above the ground. Perianth lobes similar, elliptic oblong 1.2-1.6 cm long, 0.2-0.3 cm broad, outer lobes hairy on the back, inner ones sparsely hairy along nerves. Stamens 6 in number, filamentous filiform, short 2mm long, adnate to the base of the perianth lobes, Anthers linear or linear lanceolate, basifixed and sagittate,.Ovary inferior, hidden among the leaves usually below the ground, tricarpellary syncarpous, lanceolate and trilocular with a fairly long slender beak or extension -the stipe. Ovules many in each cell attached by a distinct long funicle. Style short columnar, 2mm with a 3 lobed stigma. Lobes elongate, erect and appressed. Fruit is a capsule about 1.5-2cm long, 8mm broad, oblong, glabrescent with a slender beak and 165

spongy septa. Seeds 1-many, oblong, black, shiny with crustaceous testa grooved deeply in wavy lines. Properties and Activity Rao and Beri (1951) have identified glucose, mannose, xylose and glucuronic acid from the rootstock of C. orchioides. The rootstock is also reported to contain glycoside, polysaccharides (hemicellulose and other polysaccharides), starch, resin, tannin, mucilage, fat and calcium oxalate. The hexane extract contains an alkaloid-lycorine, sterols including -sitosterols and sapogenin identified as yuccagenin (Rao et al, 1978). The flavone glycoside from the rootstock has been identified as 5,7- dimethoxy glucopyranoside (Yadav et al, 1974; Sharma et al 1975). Mehta et al (1980) have isolated a number of fatty acids from C. orchioides root oil by GLC techniques. They are palmitic, oleic, linolenic linoleic, arachidic and behenic acid. Kubo et al (1983) isolated a new phenolic glycoside namely, curculigoside from the rhizomes and its structure has been elucidated as 5-hydroxy-2-0--d-glucopyranosyl benzl 1,2,6-dimethoxy benzoate. Yamasaki et al (1994) developed HPLC method for estimating the curculigoside content in curculigo rhizome. Two new aliphatic hydroxy ketone 27-hydroxy tricontan-6-one (M. P. 84-85oC) and 23hydroxy tricontan-2-one (M. P. 109-110 oC) were isolated from the rhizome by Misra et al (1984). They also isolated 21-hydroxy tetracontan-20-one and 4-methyl heptade canoic acid from the root stock. Porwal et al (1988) have isolated and identified three new compounds from the rhizome as N-acetyl-N-hydroxy-2-carbamic acid methyl ester, 3-acetyl-5-carbomethoxy-2H-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro1,2,3,5,6-oxatetrazine and N, N, N', N'-tetra methyl succinamide. The rhizomes of C. orchioides yielded a new phenolic glycoside corchioside a, characterised as orcinol-3--D-xylopyranosyl(16)- -D-glucopyranoside and hentriacontanol (Garg et al, 1989). A new aliphatic compound has been isolated from the rhizomes and characterised as 25dihydroxy-33-methyl pentatricontan-one (Mehta et al, 1990). Misra et al (1990) isolated a new natural triterpene alcohol-Curculigol charactrised as 24-methy cycloart-7-en-3-beta-20-diol. A novel pentacyclic triterpene has been isolated from the rhizomes of C.orchioides and characterised as 31-methyl-3-oxo-20-ursen-28-oic acid (Metha and Gawarikar,1991). Xu and Xu (1992) and Xu et al (1992 a, b) have isolated 13 cycloartane type. Triterpene glycosides from C. orchioides rhizome and characterised them as curculigo saponin A-M. The root stock are mucilaginous, sweet, cooling, bitter, emollient, diuretic, aphrodisiac, depurative, alternative, appetiser, carminative, viriligenic, antipyretic and tonic (Sivarajan and Indira, 1994; Warrier et al, 1994). The uterine stimulant activity of the flavone glycoside extracted from C. orchioides has been studied by Dhawan and Saxena (1958), Sharma et al (1975) and Dhar et al (1979). The plant extract of C. orchioides showed hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic and anticancer properties (Dhar et al,1968). Phagocytic activity (Kubo et al, 1983) and immunoadjuvant activity (Oru et al, 1982) of phenolic glycosides, curculigoside isolated from the rhizome of the plant have been reported. Porwal and Mehta (1985) discussed the medicinal importance of the plant and its use in indigenous system of medicine as a tonic. Sharma et al (1991) reported the influence of MAK an ayurvedic food supplement constituting C. orchioides against Dimethyl benz anthracene induced mammary tumours in rats. Samanta (1992) reported the modulation of male infertility by Ayurvedic drug, which constitutes C. orchioides. Immunostimulant activity of C. orchioides has been demonstrated by Saxena (1992). Immunological activites of curculigo saponin G were assayed in mice and the results showed that it promoted proliferation of spleen lymphocyctes very significantly and increased the weight of the thymus in vivo in mice (Xu et al,1992). Pharmacological studies in China, on the alcoholic extract obtained from the plant showed several active effects such as adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, sedative, androgenic and immunopromoting activities (Xu et al, 1992). Curculigo orchioides is distributed widely throughout the country. The demand of the raw materials and derivatives of the plant for the indigenous drug industries are satisfied mainly from the wild source, depleting the natural population and thus the species have become extinct or endangered. Ansari (1993) have reported C. orchioides as a threatened plant from Madhulia forest of Garakhpur. Augustin and Souza (1995) also considered the plant as an endangered species. As the information on the cultivation of C.orchioides is scanty, it is very necessary to develop suitable agrotechniques for the domestication and large-scale cultivation of the plant. 166

STRYCHNINE TREE

Strychnos nux-vomica

Loganiaceae

San: Karaskara; Hin: Kajra, Kuchila; Mal: Kanjiram; ; Tam: Itti, Kagodi, Kanjirai Mar:Jharkhatchura; Kan: Hemmushti, Ittangi; Tel: Mushti, Mushidi; Ori: Kora, Kachila Importance It is a large deciduous tree, with simple leaves and white fragrant flowers. Strychnos is highly toxic to man and animals producing stiffness of muscles and convulsions, ultimately leading to death. However, in small doses it can also serve as efficacious cure forms of paralysis and other nervous disorders. The seeds are used as a remedy in intermittent fever, dyspepsia, chronic dysentery, paralytic and neuralgic affections, worms, epilepsy, chronic rheumatism, insomnia and colic. It is also useful in impotence, neuralgia of face, heart disease, spermatorrhoea, skin diseases, toxins, wounds, emaciation, cough and cholera. Leaves are applied as poultice in the treatment of chronic wounds and ulcers and the leaf decoction is useful in paralytic complaints. Root and root bark used in fever and dysentery (Nadkarni, 1982; Kurup et al, 1979).

Distribution The plant is distributed throughout India in deciduous forests up to 1200m. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Siam, Indochina and Malaysia.

Botany Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. is a large tree belonging to the family Loganiaceae. Leaves are simple, opposite, orbicular to ovate, 6-11.5x6-9.5cm, coriaceous, glabrous, 5 nerved, apex obtuse, acute or apiculate, transverse nerves irregular and inconspicuous. Inflorescence is many flowered terminal cymes, 2.5-5cm across. Bracts (5mm) and bracteoles (1.5mm) small. Flowers are white or greenish white and fragrant. Calyx 5 lobed, pubescent and small (2mm). Corolla salver shaped, tube cylindrical slightly hairy near the base within and greenish white, tube much elongate than the lobes. Tube 7mm and lobes 2.5mm long. Lobes 5 and valvate. Stamens 5, filaments short, 0.1mm long. Anthers 1.5mm subexerted, linear oblong. Ovary 1.5 mm, pubescent, 2 celled, ovules one to many. Style 9mm, stigma capitate. Fruit is a berry, 5-6cm diameter, globose, indehiscent, thick shelled, orange red when ripe with fleshy pulp enclosing the seeds. Seeds 1-many, discoid, compressed, coin like, concave on one side and convex on the other, covered with fine grey silky hairs. The leaf fall is during December (do not shed all the leaves at a time) and new foliage appears in February. Flowering is during March - April and fruiting during May December. Fruits take about 8-9 months to mature.

Properties and Activity Strychnine and brucine are the most important and toxic alkaloids present in the plant. They occur not only in the seeds but also in roots, wood, bark, fruit pulp and hard fruit shells. The minor alkaloids present in the plant are vomicine, -colubrine, -colubrine, pseudostrychnine and N-methyl-sec-pseudobrucine (novacine). Loganin a glycoside is also present (Warnat, 1932; Martin et al, 1953; Guggisberg et al, 1966; Bisset and Chaudhary, 1974). Chatterji and Basa (1967) reported vomicine as the major constituent alkaloid along with unidentified alkaloid in leaves and identified another alkaloid kajine (N-methyl pseudostrychnine) from the leaves of very young plants. Root bark of S. nux-vomica yeilded 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy strychnine, 4 hydroxy strychine, nor-macusine, a new alkaloid 12, 13 dihydro-12-hydroxy isostrychnine named protostrychnine (Baser et al, 1979) methoxy strychnine, and mavacurine (Guggisberg et al, 1966). Leaves and root bark also yeilded 11 new alkaloids. 167

10-hydroxy strychnine, 3-12-dihydroxystrychnine, 12-hydroxy–11- methoxy strychnine, 312-dihydroxy-11-methoxy strychnine,12-hydroxy strychnine-N- oxide 12-hydroxy-11methoxy strychnine-N-oxide-19,20–dihydro isostrychnine, 16, 17 dihydro-17-hydroxy isostrychnine, O-methyl-macusine B, 16-epi-o-methyl–macusine B and normelinone B (Baser and Bisset, 1982). De and Datta (1988) isolated 5 tertiary indole alkaloids viz. strychnine, brucine, vomicine, icajine and novacine from S.nux-vomica flowers. Bisset et al (1989) isolated and identified two phenolic glycosides salidroside and cuchiloside – a compound consisting of salidroside and an attached xylose unit, from the fruit of S.nux-vomica. Rodriguez et al (1979) isolated an indole alkaloid from the seeds of S. nuxvomica and identified as a 3-methoxy icajine. A new alkaloid 15-hydroxy strychnine has been isolated from the seeds and the structure of the alkaloid established by spectroscopic data (Galeffi et al, 1979). Cai et al (1990a) isolated 4 new alkaloids isobrucine, isobrucine N-oxide, isostrychnine N-oxide and 2 hydroxy–3-methoxy strychnine from the heat treated seeds of S. nuxvomica and the structure of the alkaloids were determined by 13 CNMR (Cai et al, 1994). Cai et al (1990 b) studied the changes in the alkaloid composition of the seeds during drug processing. Saily et al (1994) determined the mineral elements in Strychnos nux-vomica. Corsaro et al (1995) reported polysaccharides from the seeds of Strychnos species. Seeger and Neumann (1986) reviewed the physico-chemical characteristics, occurrence, identification, utilisation, poisoning, toxicity, kinetics, differential diagnosis and therapeutic uses of strychnine and brucine. Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Pencillium citrinum showed regular association with Strychnos seeds and effectively deteriorated the alkaloid content of the seeds (Dutta, 1988; Dutta and Roy, 1992). Nicholson (1993) described the history, structure and synthesis of strychnine which occur in the seeds of S. nux-vomica. Rawal and Michoud (1991) developed a general solution for the synthesis of 2-azabicyclo (3.3.1) nonane substructure of Strychnos alkaloids. Villar et al (1984) and Hayakawa et al (1984) developed HPLC method for the analysis of strychnine and brucine. Graf and Wittliner (1985), Kostennikova (1986) and Gaitonde and Joshi (1986) suggested different methods for the assay of strychnine and brucine. Biala et al, (1996) developed new method for the assay of alkaloids in S. nuxvomica. The seeds are bitter, acrid, alexeteric, aphrodisiac, appetiser, antiperiodic, anthelmintic, digestive, febrifuge, emmenagogue, purgative, spinal, respiratory and cardiac stimulant and stomachic. The bark is bitter, and tonic and febrifuge (Nadkarni, 1954; Kurup et al, 1979; Warrier et al, 1996). The quarternery alkaloid from the root bark of the Sri Lankan plant exhibited muscle-relaxant activity (Baser and Bisset, 1982). Antimicrobial activity of indole alkaloid isolated from the Strychnos nux-vomica was studied by Verpoorte et al, 1983. Shukla et al (1985) evaluated the efficacy of Rasnadigugglu compound consisting of S. nux-vomica, on rheumatoid arthritis and found to be effective in reducing inflammatory oedoma and rheumatoid arthritis. It also exhibited analgesic activity. A compound Unani formulation containing S. nux-vomica significantly attenuated withdrawal intensity in morphine dependent rats (Zatar et al, 1991). Shahana et al (1994) studied the effect of Unani drug combination (UDC) having Strychnos nux-vomica on the abstinence syndrome in moderately and severely morphine dependent rats. The UDC strikingly suppressed the abstinence syndrome was seen to possess central depressant and analgesic action. Melone et al (1992) reported brucine-lethality in mice. Panda and Panda (1993) and Satyanarayanan et al (1994) reported antigastric ulcer activity of nux vomica in Shay rats. Banerjee and Pal (1994) reported the medicinal plants used by the tribals of plain land in India for hair and scalp preparation and S. nux-vomica being used to cure alopecia

168

(baldness) by the tribals. Tripathi and Chaurasia (1996) studied the effect of S. nux-vomica alcohol extract on lipid peroxidation in rat liver.

169

IX. ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT % o C    @ a.i. Ass Ben Ca CNS CVS D eg et al FYM g GLC Guj ha Hin HPLC hr ie k K Kan Kas l L m M&AP Mal Mar Mg N O O P p pp Pun Raj S San sp, spp t Tam Tel TLC var viz vol yr

Per cent Degree Celsius Alpha Beta Gamma At the rate of Active ingredient Assamese Bengali Calcium Central nervous system Central venal system Dextro-rotatory Example and others Farm yard manure gram Gas liquid chromatography Gujarathi hectare Hindi High pressure (performance) liquid chromatography hour that is kilo Potassium Kannada Kashmiri litre Levo-rotatory metre, milli Medicinal and aromatic plants Malayalam Marathi Magnesium Nitrogen Oxygen Oxygen Phosphorus page pages Punjabi Rajasthani Sulphur Sanskrit species tonne Tamil Telugu Thin layer chromatography variety namely volume year

170

X. NAMES OF BOTANISTS Alef. Alst Arg Backer Bal Bartl. Batsch Bedd Boj Borss Braun Blanquet Burkill Cav Christm Clark Colebr Collet. Corr Coss Cramer Crepin. Czern. De Wilde Desv Diels Don Druce Dunal Eberm Ehrh Ener, Forsk Friis G. Don Gaenep Gagnep Gandich Gaud Gilib. Guerke Haw Haworth Herrm. Heyne Hout Houtt Hunter J. Burm Jacq Jowitt Juss Juss Ker-Gawler Koch Koenig Kosterm Kunth Kuntze Kurz L. Herit Labill

Alston, Arthur Hugh Grafit Backer, Cornelis Andries Balansa, Benedict F.G. Bartling A.J.G.K. Batsch Beddome, Richard Henry Bojer, Wenceslas Borssum Waalkes Burkill, Issac Henry Cavanilles, Antonio Jose Christmann, Gottlieb, Friedrich Colebrooke, Henry Thomas

Louis H. Cramer De Wildeman, Emile August(e) Joseph Desvaux, Auguste Nicaise Diels, Friedrich Lugurig Emil Don, George Druce, George Claridge Dunal, Michel Felix J.F. Ehrhart Forsskal, Pehr Friis, Ib Don, George Gagne pain, Francois Gaudichaud - Beaupre, Charles J.E. Gilibert Gurke (Guerke), Robert Louis August Maximilian Haworth, Adrian Heyne, Benjamin Houttuyn, Martin W. Hunter Jacquin, Nicolaus Jussieu, Adrien Henri Laurent de Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de Ker Gawler, John Bellenden Koch, Grungberg Christian Theodar Koenig, Johann Gerhard Kostermans, Andre Joseph Gulliaume Henri Kunth, Karl Sigismund Kuntze, Carl Ernst Kurz, W. Sulpiz L’Heritier, Charles Louis Labillardiere, Jacques Julien Houtton de 171

Less Link Lippold Lour M. R. Maire Maton Medicus Mich Miers Millsp Miq Moon Murray Nash Nees Oken Ortega Osb Parker Pellet Pennell Perr. Pers Pierre Poiret Poisson Prain Radlk Raeush Rafin Rehd. Rendle Retz Robs Rosc Roth S. M. Almeida S. Manso Sargent Schott Schrank Schult Sims Skeels Sonner Sprague Spreng Stapf Steud Stocks Suresh Sw Swartz Swingle Taub Thonn Thumb Thw Urban Vahl Vent Voigt

Lessing, Christian Friedrich Link, Johann Heinrich Friedrich Lippold, Hans Loureiro, Joao de Maire, Rene Charles Joseph Ernest Maton, William George Medikus, Friedrich Casimir Miers, John Millspaugh, Charles Frederick Miquel, Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Moon, Alexander Murray, Johan Andreas Nash, George Valentine Nees von Esenbeck, Christian Gottfried Daniel Oken, Lorenz Ortega, Casimiro Gomez Osbeck, Pehr Pennell, Francis Whittier T.A. Perry floreat Persoon, Christiaan Hendrik Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis Poiret, Jean Louis Marie Prain David Radlkofer, Ludwig Adolph Timotheus Rauschel, Ernst Adolph Rafinesque - Schmaltz, Constantine Samuel Rehder, Alfred Rendle, Alfred Barton Retzius, Anders Jahan Robson, Norman K.B. Roscoe, William Roth, Albrecht Wilhelm Silva Manso Antonio Luiz Patricio da C.S. Sargent Schott, Heinrich Wilhelm Schrank, Franz Paulavon Schultes, Josef August Sims, John Skeels, Homer collar Sonnerat, Pierre Sprague, Thomas Archibald Sprengel, Curt Polycarp Joachim Stapf, Otto Steudel, Ernst Gottlieb von Swartz, Olof Peter O. Swartz Swingle, Walter Tennyson Taubert, Paul Hermann Wilhelm Thonning, H. Thunberg, Carl Peter Thwaites, George Henry Kendrick Urban, Ignatz Vahl, Jens Lorenz Moestue Ventenat, Etienne Pierre Voigt, Johann Otto 172

Voigt Watt Wills

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GLOSSARY Abortifacient Abscess Absorbent Acne Acrid Agalactia Ague Albuminuria Alexipharmic Alexiteric Alopecia Alterative Amenorrhoea Amentia Anaemia Analeptic Analgesic Anaphrodisiac Anasarca Anaesthetic Anodyne Anorectic Anorexia Anthelmintic Antiasthmatic Antibiotic Anticoagulant Antidiarrheal Antidote Antidote Antidyspeptic Antiemetic Antihemorrhagic Antihypertensive Antiinflammatory Antilithich Antiperiodic Antiphlogistic Antipruritic Antipyretic Antirachitic Antirheumatic Antiscorbutic antiscrofulous Antiseptic Antispsmodic Antitussive Antiuric Anuria Aperient Aphrodisiac Aphthae Apoplexy Arthralgia Arthritis Ascites Asphyxia Astringent Atrophy Balanitis

An agent that induces abortion A localised collection of pus caused by suppuration in a tissue Any agent which attracts and sucks up gases or secretions from a wound. An inflammatory disease occurring in or around the sebaceous glands Biting, pungent Absence or failure of secretion of milk Malaria The presence of serum albumin and serum globulin in the urine Antidote to poison Protective to infectious diseases Loss of hair-a malady in which the hair falls from one or more circumscribed round or oval areas, leaving the skin smooth and white. Causing a favorable change in the disordered functions of the body or metabolism Failure of menstruation An arrest of the development of the mind from birth to early age. Lack of enough blood in the body causing paleness Having a restorative or stimulating effect, as on the central nervous system Relieving pain Having the power to lessen or inhibit sexual feeling Diffused dropsy in the skin and subcutaneous tissue Inducing loss of feeling or consciousness A medicine that allays pain Lacking appetite A condition of having lost the appetite for food Destroying or expelling worms Relieving asthma Killing disease causing microorganisms Inhibiting the clotting of blood Preventing or controlling diarrhea An agent which neutralizes or opposes the action of a poison Substance that counteracts the effects of a poison Relieving dyspepsia or indigestion Stopping emesis or vomiting Controlling bleeding Reducing high blood pressure Controlling inflammation An agent which prevents the formation of calculi or promotes their dilution Preventing the regular recurrence of a disease Acting against heat or inflammation Preventing or relieving itching Counteracting fever Preventing or curing rickets A condition that causes inflammation and pain in the joints and muscles Acting against scurvy Treating scrofula or tubercular swellings of the lymph glands A chemical sterilising substance to kill or control pathogenic microbes Opposing spasms or convulsions Controlling or preventing cough Counteracting excessive acidity in the urine Complete cessation of the secretion and excretion of urine A laxative or mild cathartic A drug which stimulates sexual desire Ulcer on the surface of a mucous membrane A sudden loss of consciousness Pain in joint Inflammation of a joint Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity Inability to breath Causing soft tissues or drawing together Wasting of a tissue or organ A condition of inflammation of the penis or of the clitoris 174

Bechic Beriberi Blennorrhagia Brachycardiac Bronchopathy Bubo Cachexia Calculus Calefacient Calibration Calmative Carbuncle Carcinogenic Carcinoma Cardiac Cardiac depressant Cardiodynia Cardiokinetic Cardiopalmus Cardiopathy Cardiotonic Carminative Cataplexy Cataract Catarrh Cathartic Cephalalgia Cephalic Cephalopathy Cerebropathy Cholagogue Cholera Cicatrizing Cirrhosis Colic Colitis Collyrium Colonalgia Colonitis Colonorrhagia Colpitis Colpoptosis Colporrhagia Coma Conjunctivitis Consumption Contraceptive Contusion Convulsion Corn Counterirritant Coxalgia Coxitis Croup Cystalgia Cystitis Cystodynia Cystorrhea Dandruff

Anything which relieves or cures cough A deficiency disease caused by imbalance of carbohydrate and vitamin B Free discharge of mucus Making the heart beat slower Any disease of the bronchi An inflammatory swelling of a lymph gland Depressed habit of mind A concretion formed in any part of the body usually compounds of salts of organic or inorganic acids A remedy which gives rise to a sensation of warmth Demonstrating that a measuring device produces results within the specified limits of those produce by a reference standard device over an appropriate rang of measurements Sedative An infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue by Staphylococcus aureus Causing cancer A malignant epithelial tumour eventually becoming fatal Relating to the heart Slowing the action of the heart Pain in the region of the heart Regulating or strengthening the heartbeat Palpitation of the heart A morbid condition of the heart Keeping the heart functioning normally Drug causing the release of stomach or intestinal gas A condition marked by abrupt attacks of muscular weakness Opacity in the crystalline lens of the eye which may be partial or complete A condition in which the mucous membranes of the nose and breathing passages are inflamed, often chronically Having the power of cleaning the bowels-purgative Headache A remedy for disorders of the head Any disease of the head Any disorder of the brain A drug which causes increased flow of bile into the intestine A severe infectious epidemic disease due to Vibrio cholerae Promoting the growth Progressive fibrous tissue overgrowth in an organ A severe spasmodic griping pain Inflammation of the colon An eye-salve or eye-wash Pain in the colon Inflammation of the colon Hemorrhage from the colon Inflammation of the vagina Prolapse of the vagina Hemorrhage from the vagina The state of complete loss of consciousness Inflammation of the conjunctiva Pulmonary tuberculosis Any agent or device used to prevent conception An injury to tissue that does not break the skin A violent involuntary contraction of the skeletal musculature A small circumscribed painful horny growth An agent that causes local inflammation of an area Pain in the hip Inflammation of the hip joint Any condition caused by respiratory obstruction Pain in the urinary bladder Inflammation of a bladder, especially the urinary bladder Pain in the urinary bladder Mucous discharge from the bladder Dead scarf-skin separating in small flakes 175

Decongestant Demulcent Dental caries Dentalgia Dentifrice Deobstruent Deodorant Depurative Dermatitis Dermatopathy Dermatophytosis Desiccating Diaphoresis Diaphoretic Digestive Diphtheria Discutient Disinfectant Diuretic Dizziness Dropsy

Drug Drug product Drug substance Dysmenorrhoea Dysopia Dyspepsia Dysphonia Dyspnoea Dystocia Dysuria Ecbolic Eclampsia Eczema Edema Elephantiasis Elixir Embrocate Emetic Emmenagogue Emollient Emphysema Empyema Encephalitis Encephalopathy Enuresis Epilepsy Epistaxis Errhine Erysipelas Escharotic Euphoriant Expectorant

Relieving congestion, as of the mucous membrane Soothing Decay of teeth Toothache Any liquid, paste or powder used for cleansing the teeth. Relieving or removing obstruction Removing the odour An agent that purifies blood Irritation or inflammation of the skin Any skin disorder A superficial infection of the skin caused by a fungus Depriving of moisture Sweating A drug which induces perspiration Improving digestion A specific infectious disease caused by virulent strains of a Bacillus Removing tumours Having a lethal effect upon germs Promoting the flow of urine Sensation of imbalance of a stable relationship with the immediate environment An excessive accumulation of clear or watery fluid in any of the tissues or cavities of the body An agent that is used therapeutically to treat diseases. It may also be defined as any chemical agent and/or biological product or natural product that affects living processes A finished dosage form, for eg., a tablet, capsule or solution that contains a drug substance An active ingredient that is intended to furnish pharmacological activity or other direct effect in diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of diseases or to effect the structure or any function of the human body Difficult or painful menstruation Defective vision Indigestion Difficulty or pain in speaking Difficulty in breathing Difficult parturition Difficulty or pain while passing urine Tending to increase contractions of the uterus and thus facilitate childbirth An attack of convulsion associated with hypertension in pregnancy A noncontagious inflammatory disease of the skin with much itching and burning Fluid retention by the body causing swelling and discomfort Gross lymphatic edema of the limbs leading to hypertrophy A drug capable of prolonging life indefinitely To moisten and rub Causing vomiting Medicine intended to restore the mensus Softening A pathologic accumulation of air in tissues or organs Accumulation of pus in a body cavity Inflammation of the brain and spinal cord due to infection Any degenerative brain disease Involuntary voiding of urine An affection of the nervous system resulting from excessive or disordered discharge of cerebral neurons Bleeding from the nose An agent causing increased nasal discharge An inflammatory disease generally affecting the face marked by a bright redness of the skin A caustic substance that creates a mass of dead cells or scab Producing a sense of bodily comfort and well-being and the absence of pain or distress Aiding the secretion of the mucous membrane of the air passages and the removal of fluid by spitting 176

Extract Febrifuge Felon Filariasis Fistula Flatulence Frenzy Galactogenic Galactogogue Galactorrhea Gangrene Gastralgia Gastrodynia Gastroenteritis Gastrohelcosis Gastromegaly Gastropathy Germicidal Gingivitis Glaucoma Gleet Glycosuria Goitre Gonorrhoea Gout Gripe Haematemesis Haematuria Haemoptysis Haemorrhoid Haemostatic Halitosis Hallucinogenic Heart palpitations Helminthiasis Hemagogue Hematinic Hematorrhea Hemicrania Hemiplegia Hemolytic Hepatalgia Hepatic Hepatitis Hepatodynia Hepatomegaly Hepatopathy Hepatosis Hernia Herpes Herpetic Hydragogue Hydrocele Hydrophobia Hyperdenosis Hyperdipsia Hyperdiuresis

A concentrate of dried, less volatile aromatic plant part obtained by solvent extraction with a polar solvent Anything which reduces fever A deep infection around the nails of toes or fingers Infection with filarial nematode worms An open channel from the anus or rectum to the skin near the anus Presence of excessive gas in the stomach or intestine Violent temporary mental derangement Promoting the flow of milk Medicine that promotes secretion of milk Excessive or spontaneous flow of milk Necrosis and putrefaction of tissue due to lack of blood supply Pain in the stomach Pain in the stomach Inflammation of the mucous coat of the stomach and intestine due to bacterial infection Ulceration of the stomach Enlargement of the stomach Any disease of the stomach Causing destruction of micro-organisms Inflammation of the gingival margins around the teeth accompanied by swelling and bleeding Increased intraocular pressure and its consequences Chronic discharge of thin mucous from the vagina Excretion of sugar in the urine Enlargement of the thyroid gland An inflammatory disease of the genitourinary passages characterized by pain and discharge A disease of purine metabolism characterized by attacks of arthritis with an associated raised level of serum uric acid A sharp pain in the stomach Vomiting of blood The presence of blood in the urine Spitting of blood A bleeding pile Having the power to arrest bleeding Offensive odour of the breath Producing hallucinations Abnormally rapid and irregular beating of the heart Morbid state due to infestation with worms An agent that promotes the flow of blood Stimulating the formation of blood cells and hemoglobin Copious hemorrhage Headache confined to one side Paralysis of one side of the body Destructive to red blood cells Pain in the liver Having to do with the liver Inflammation of the liver; jaundice Pain in the liver Enlargement of the liver Any disease of the liver Downward displacement of the liver The protrusion of an internal organ through a defect in the wall of the anatomical cavity in which it lies. Inflammation of the skin or mucous membrane with clusters of deep seated vesicles Treating skin eruptions Promoting expulsion of water or serum A circumscribed collection of fluid in the tunica vaginalis testis Exaggerated fear of water as in rabies Proliferation of glandular tissue Intense thirst of relatively brief duration Excessive secretion of urine 177

Hyperemesis Hyperhydrosis Hyperorexia Hyperpraxia Hypertension Hypertensive Hyperthermia Hypnotic Hypochonodriasis Hypoglycement Hypotension Hypotensive Hypothermia Hysteria Impetigo Impotence Infusion Insanity Insecticide Insomnia Installationqualification Intermittent fever Intoxication Irritant Jaundice Kidney stone Lactation Lactifuge Laryngitis Laxative Lentigo Lesion Leucoderma Leucorrhoea Leukaemia Liniment Linthontriptic Lithiasis Lumbago Malignant Mammillitis Masticatory Melalgia Melancholia Menolipsis Menorrhagia Menostasis Metropathy Metroptosis Metrorrhagia Metrorrhea Micturition Migraine Morbid

Excessive vomiting Excessive perspiration Excessive appetite Abnormal activity; restlessness High arterial blood pressure Tending to rise the blood pressure A very high body temperature Inducing sleep or a state resembling sleep A state of mind in which the sufferer is much preoccupied with his health Lowering the level of blood sugar in the body A fall in blood pressure below the normal level Tending to lower blood pressure Greatly decreased temperature A neurotic disorder with varying symptoms An inflammation of the skin associated with discrete vesicles due to streptococcal infection Inability to perform the sexual act due to failure of the reflex mechanism A hot extract of either a plant part or its exudate with either water or an organic solvent. Mental disease of a grave kind Any agent which kills or destroys insects The condition of being unable to sleep Documented verification that all key aspects of the installation adhere to the appropriate codes and approved design intentions and that manufacturers recommendations are duly considered A regularly recurring fever General condition which results following the absorption and diffusion in the body of a soluble poison An agent that causes inflammation Yellowing of the skin and other tissues caused by the presence of bile pigments Small, hard stone that may form in the kidneys and cause intense pain The secretion of milk by mammals Retarding or causing cessation of the secretion of milk Inflammation of the larynx Having the action of loosening the bowel A brownish or yellowish spot found on the skin, generally on the hands, arms or face often caused by exposure to sunlight A wound Any white area on the skin An abnormal mucous discharge from the vagina Blood cancer A liquid or thin paste applied to the skin to work as a pain reliever An agent that effects the dissolution of a calculus The formation of calculus of any kind Pain in mid or lower back Threatening life or tending to cause death Inflammation of the nipple A substance that is chewed to increase the flow of saliva Pain in the limbs A mental illness in which the predominant symptom is melancholy, depression of spirits, unhappiness and misery Temporary cessation of menstruation Excessive or prolonged menstruation Failure of menstruation Any uterine disease Prolapse of the uterus Uterine, bleeding, usually of normal amount occurring at completely irregular intervals, the period of flow sometimes being prolonged Abnormal uterine discharge The act of passing urine A periodic condition with localised headaches, frequently associated with vomiting and sensory disturbances Relating to disease 178

Mumps Myalgia Mydriasis Mydriatic Myringitis Narcotic Nasitis Nauseant Nepholithiasis Nephralgia Nephritis Nephropathy Neuralgia Neurasthenia Notalgia Nyctalopia Obesity Odontalgia Odontopathy Oleaginous Opacity Operationqualification Ophthalmia Ophthalmodynia Ophthalmopathy Opthalmitis Orchialgia Orchiopathy Orchitis Ostalgia Osteomalacia Otalgia Otopathy Otopyorrhea Pancreatitis Paraplegia Parkinsonism partiurient Pectoral Pectoralgia Performancequalification Pertussis Pharyngitis Pharyngodynia Pharyngopathy Phythisis Pneumonia Pneumonopathy Pneumonosis Pneumorrhagia Poliomyelitis Poultice Procreant Proctalgia Proctoptosis Prophylactic Prurigo Pruritus Psoriasis

Epidemic parotitis, an acute infectious disease caused by a virus Muscular pain Dilation of the pupil A drug that dilates the pupil Inflation of the tympanic membrane A drug that induces sleep Inflation of the nose An agent that causes nausea Presence of renal calculi Pain in the kidney Inflation of the kidneys Disease of the kidneys A painful affection of the nerves due to functional disturbances or neuritis Nervous debility Pain in the back Night blindness An excessive accumulation of fat in the body Toothache Any disease of the teeth Oily, greasy An opaque or non-transparent area documented verification that the system or sub system performs as intended throughout all anticipated operating ranges Referring to conjunctivitis Pain in the eye Any disease of the eye Inflation of the eye ball Pain in the testis Any disorder of the testis Inflammation of the testis characterised by hypertrophy and pain Pain in the bones Softening of the bones, resulting from vitamin D deficiency Pain in the ear Any disease of the ear Purulent discharge from the ear Inflammation of the pancreas Stroke affecting one side Parkinson’s disease characterised by rigidity of muscles and tremor of the hands Inducing the contractions of labour at childbirth Effective in diseases of the chest Pain in the chest Documented verification of the appropriateness of critical process parameters, operating ranges and system reproducibility over an appropriate time period Whooping cough Inflammation of the mucous membrane and underlying part of the pharynx Pain in the pharynx Any disease of the pharynx Any wasting disease in which the whole body or part of the body is involved Inflammation of lung tissue Any disease of the lungs Any lung disorder A severe haemoptysis An acute inflammation of the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord due to an enterovirus infection A soft mush prepared by various substances with oily or watery fluids The drug which begets Pain in the rectum Prolapse of the rectum Pertaining to the prevention of the development of a disease An eruption of the skin causing severe itching Itching A condition characterised by the eruption of circumscribed discrete and confluent reddish, silvery scaled lesions 179

Psoriasis plantaris Psychopathy Ptyalism Purgative Pyorrhoea Pyrexia Rachialgia Radiculalgia Radiculitis Ramitis Rectalgia Rectitis Refrigerant Renal Renal calculi Renopathy Resolvent Resorptive Restorative Resuscitative Retinitis Revulsive Rheumarthritis Rheumatalgia Rhinalgia Rhinitis Rhinodynia Rhinopathy Rickets Roborant Rubefacient Sarcocele Scabies Scald Scalding of urine Scleritis Scrofula Scurvy Sedative Sialogogue Sinovitis Sinusitis Somatalgia Somnifacient Somnolence Soporific Spanomenorrhea Spasmolytic Splenalgia Splenitis splenohepatomegaly Splenomegaly Splenopathy Stimulant Stomachalgia Stomachic Stomatalgia Stomatitis Stomatopathy Stomatorrhagia

Psoriasis of the sole Any disease of the mind Excessive secretion of saliva Strong laxative A discharge of pus A condition characterised by the presence of pus Pain in the vertebral column Neuralgia of the nerve roots Inflammation of spinal nerve roots Inflammation of a nerve root Pain in the rectum Inflammation of the rectum Cooling Relating to the kidneys Calculi relating to kidney Any disease of the kidney Causing resolution of a tumour or swelling Aiding reabsorption of blood from bruises Having the power to restore or renew health The act of restoring to life Inflammation of the retina Causing revulsion in drawing away of blood from a pathological area to another area Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatic pain Pain in the nose Inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane Pain in the nose Any disease of the nose A disturbance of the calcium/phosphorus metabolism which occurs in the growing child as a result of vitamin D deficiency A strengthening agent Having the action of counter irritant Fleshy swelling or tumour of the testis Sarcoptic infestation of the human skin particularly a contagious skin disease caused by invasion of the epidermis The lesion caused by contact with a hot liquid or vapour Severe burning sensation during micturition Inflammation of the sclera Tuberculous cervical adenitis with or without ulceration A deficiency disease due to lack of Vitamin C Acting on the central nervous system to produce sleep An agent that increases the flow of saliva Inflammation of the synovial membrane of a joint Inflammation affecting the mucal epithelium of a sinus Body pain Causing sleep Sleepiness Inducing sleep Scanty menstruation Helping to relieve cramps and other muscle contractions Pain in the spleen Inflammation of the spleen Enlargement of spleen and liver Enlargement of the spleen Any disease of the spleen Making a body organ active Pain in the stomach Aiding the stomach and digestion Pain in the mouth Generalised inflammation of the oral mucosa Any disorder of the mouth Hemorrhage from the mouth 180

Stupefacient Styptic Sudorific Suppurative Syphilis Syrup Taeiniacide Tetanus Thermoplegia Thrombosis Tincture Tonic Tonsilitis Toxaemia Tranquilizer Trauma Trichogenous Ulemorrhagia Ulitis Ulocace Ulorrhagia Ulorrhea Unguent Urelcosis Ureteralgia Ureteritis Urethritis Urethrorrhagia Urethrorrhea Urocyst Urocystitis Urodynia Urolithiasis Uro-edema Uropathy Urorrhagia Urorrhea Uroschesis Urticaria Uteralgia Uterine sedative Uteritis Vaginitis Vaginodynia Vaginopathy Validation Vasoconstrictor Vasodilator Vermifuge Verminosis Vertigo Vesical Vesicant Visceromegaly Vulnerary

Inducing stupor Having the power to arrest bleeding Acting to increase perspiration Pus forming A contagious venereal disease A water and sugar solution to which are added flavouring, medicinal, or some other desired ingredients An agent that kills tapeworms An infective disease due to the toxins of Clostridium tetani Sun stroke A blood clot that may partially or wholly block the flow of blood through a blood vessel A medication that has its medicinal agent dissolved in alcohol An agent that is used to give strength to the system Inflammation of the tonsil The condition of general poisoning caused by the entrance of soluble bacterial toxins into the blood Drug employed to calm or sedate people or animals A pathological alteration of the supporting tissues of a tooth due to abnormal occlusion Stimulating the growth of hair Bleeding from the gums Inflammation of the gums Ulceration of the gums Hemorrhage from the gums Bleeding from the gums Ointment Ulceration of the urinary tract Pain in the ureter Inflammation of the ureter Inflammation of the urethra Flow of blood from the urethra Abnormal discharge from the urethra The urinary bladder Inflammation of the urinary bladder Pain on urination Urinary calculi Edema due to infiltration of urine Any disease of the urinary tract Excessive secretion of urine Involuntary flow of urine Retention of urine Itching, inflamed skin caused by an allergic reaction to a drug, food, or substance in the environment; also called hives Pain in the uterus An agent that relaxes the muscles of the uterus Inflammation of the uterus Inflammation of the vagina Pain in the vagina Any disease of the vagina Establishing documented evidence which provides a high degree of assurance that a specific process will consistently produce a product meeting its pre-determinant specifications and quality attributes An agent that narrows blood vessel openings, restricting the flow of blood through them An agent that expands blood vessels, allowing more blood to flow through them A drug that expels worms Morbid state due to infestation with worms Dizziness Referring to the urinary bladder A counter irritant strong enough in some cases to cause blistering Abnormal enlargement of the viscera Soothing or healing wounds and sores 181

Wart Wash

A circumscribed cutaneous excrescence Liquid medicinal preparation for external use

182

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189

VIII. Database on tropical medicinal plants Scientific Name

Family

Abelmoschus moschatus Malvaceae (Linn.) Medicus

Distribution

Habit

Propagation Part used

India

Shrub

Seed

Seed

Opth Coug

Leaves, roots, stalks, flower

Anthelmintic, expectorant, emetic, anodyne Cardiac, stimulant, diuretic, astringent,

Scab chron asthm Rena anas

Stomachic, tonic, anti-flatulent, tranquilizer Astringent, diuretic

Child nervo

Antispasmodic, antiasthamatic Antiprotozoal, hypoglycaemic

Dysp

Papilionaceae

Plains and hills of India

climber

seed

Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet

Malvaceae

India, Sri Lanka

herb

Seed

Acacia catechu Willd.

Mimosaceae

India

tree

seed

Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. Euphorbiaceae

India

Shrub

Euphorbiaceae

India

herb

India herb

herb

seed

Whole plant

India

herb

rhizome

rhizome

Hills of Kerala

shrub

Seed and vegetatively Seed, vegetatively Seed, root

Whole plant mainly root Leaves, root, bark, flowers Root, stem, leaves, fruits

Achyranthes aspera Linn. Amaranthaceae Acorus calamus Linn.

Araceae

Adhatoda beddomei C. B. Acanthaceae Clarke Acanthaceae Adhatoda zeylanica Medicus Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Corr. Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss. Amaranthaceae

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.

Asteraceae Simarubaceae

Alangium salviifolium (Linn. f.) Wang.

Lower Himalayan shrub ranges Forest of himalayan Small tree tracts, central and S. India Tropics and subUnder shrub tropics, Africa, Asia

Uses

Diuretic, demulcent,antiseptic, carminative Roots, leaves, Cytotoxic, seeds antifertility, abortifacient Seed, root, bark, Hypothermic, CNS leaves active, analgesic, aphrodisiac Bark, heart wood Anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, hypotensive

Abrus precatorius Linn.

Acalypha indica Linn.

Activity/Properties

Coug paral

Diarr coug gono Eye d stom teeth

Coug astha Expectorant, diuretic, Coug alterative phthi Hypoglycaemic, Diarr antifungal, CVS stom active Anthelmintic, diuretic, Diabe antihead inflammatory,antibacteria

herb

Antilithic

India

tree

Bark, leaf

Alangiaceae

S. India

Small tree

Roots, fruits

Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Benth.

Mimosaceae

Tree

seed

Allium cepa Linn.

Liliaceae

India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Africa, Australia India

herb

Bulb

Bark, flower, seeds, leaves, roots Bulb, seed

Allium cepa var. aggregatum

Liliaceae

India

herb

Bulb

Bulb, seed

Allium sativum Linn.

Liliaceae

All over India

herb

Cloves, bulblets

bulbs

Aloe barbadensis Mill.

Liliaceae

India, Florida, W.Indies, Asia

herb

vegetative

Leaf juice, Elio (dried gum)

Anthelmintic, purgative, oxytocic

Alpinia allughas Rosc.

Zingiberaceae

W.ghats, Sri Lanka, herb Malaya, China, India

rhizome

rhizome

CVS & CNS active, Rheu diuretic, hypothermic, dysp antiulcerative asthm

Alpinia calcarata Rosc.

Zingiberaceae

W.ghats, Sri Lanka, herb Malaya, China, India

rhizome

rhizome

CVS & CNS active, Coug diuretic, hypothermic, asthm antiulcerative

Alpinia galanga Sw.

Zingiberaceae

Himalaya, Assam, Bihar, W. ghats

rhizome

rhizome

Alstonia scholaris (Linn.) R. Br.

Apocynaceae

India especially W. tree Ghats

seed

Bark, leaves, milky exudate

Alstonia venenata R. Br.

Apocynaceae

India

shrub

Roots, fruits

Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

Amaranthaceae

India, native of America

herb

seed, vegetative seed

CVS & CNS active, diuretic, hypothermic, antiulcerative Antimalarial, hypotensive, anthelmintic Depurative, febrifuge

190

herb

Root, leaf

Immunomodulator, hypoglycaemic, anticancer Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, emmenagogue Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, emmenagogue Anti-inflammatory, hypotensive

Galactogenic, emollient

Skin burni rheum asth

Feve bronc

Feve bronc

Piles dysp

Woun kidne

Vat, k asthm

Skin mala bronc Skin lepro Ecze

Andrographis paniculata Nees Anisochilus carnosus Wall.

Acanthaceae

India, Sri Lanka

Lamiaceae

N. Circars, Mysore, herb Malabar

Anisomeles malabarica R. Br.

Lamiaceae

S.India, Sri Lanka

herb

Annona squamosa Linn.

Annonaceae

India

tree

seed

Java, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Burma Tropics

tree

seed

Stimulant, stomachic alexipharmic, astringent Corm, seed Antiasthmatic, antiemetic Bark, leaf, fruit Anthelmintic, antiasthmatic root Cardiac stimulant, sialogogue Whole plant Antipyretic, alterative, febrifuge Leaves, oil Stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant Leaves, essential Stimulant, oil diaphoretic, astringent Whole plant Purgative, suppurative seeds febrifuge

tree

seed

Bark, seed

Tropical India, E. Archipelago

palm

Seed

Native of Mexico, India

Annual

seed

Argyreia speciosa Sweet Convolvulaceae

india

Aristolochia bracteolata Ham. Aristolochia indica Linn.

Aristolochiaceae

India

Climbing shrub twiner

Seed or kernal, root, tender leaves, catechu Milky juice, seed, Astringent, Rheu fresh root anthelmintic, aperient cons dyse Leaves, root antipholgistic Syno

Seed, veg.,

Aristolochiaceae

India

twiner

Artemisia pallens

Asteraceae

Poona, Alndi, Jejuri Sub shrub

Artemisia vulgaris Linn.

Asteraceae

Amomum subulatum Roxb.

Zingiberaceae

Araceae Amorphophalus companulatus (Roxb.) Bl. Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Linn. Anacyclus pyrethrum DC Asteraceae

Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Moraceae Lesch. Aphanamixis polystachya Meliaceae (Wall.) Parker Arecaceae Areca catechu Linn. Argemone mexicana Linn.

Papaveraceae

Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae Lam.

E. Himalaya, Bengal, Sikkim, Assam India

herb

Seed, rhizome

herb

Corm

Tropics

tree

seed

Bengal, Arabia

herb herb

India

Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Moraceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Averrhoa bilimbi Linn.

Liliaceae Oxalidaceae

Salvadoraceae

Decan, Sri Lanka, Coromandal coast

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell

Scrophulariaceae

Throughout India in herb wet places

Euphorbiaceae Baliospermum solanifolium (J. Burm.) Suresh Bambusa bambos Druce Poaceae

Digestive, diuretic, anthelmintic Antidote, leprosy, dropsy

Ulcer colic

Seeds, vegetative

Whole plant

Seed

Azima tetracantha Lam.

Anthelmintic, Tumo astringent, anticancer comp

Nervo woun disea Rheu dysp

Tree

India, Africa

dysp

Bark, leaves, Antiviral, flower, seeds, oil anthelmintic, insectcide, antiseptic Leaves, roots diuretic

Seed

Meliaceae

Tumo

Seed

tree

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Feve dysp

tonic

Seed

Ever green tree Tree

Roots, leaves, fruits Stimulant, emmenagogue, alexiteric Whole plant

Vomi disea neura Eleph rheum Antid astrin Tooth paral Syph syph Coug

Antipyretic, anthelmintic Leaves, flowering Anthelmintic, tops antiseptic, expectorant Roots, leaves, Antidiarrhoeal. fruits. Seeds, Astringent, wood, latex carminative, tonic Bark, leaves. Astringent, fruits anaphrodisiac Tuberous roots Spasmolytic, anticancer fruit Astringent, stomachic, refrigerant, cooling Leaves, root, fruit Laxative, refrigerant,

tree

India, Andaman climber and Nicobar islands India, Burma Ever green tree

Averrhoa carambola Linn. Oxalidaceae

Root, rhizome

Seed, oil

Seed, root Seed Seed

Asthm lepro

Skin dysp

Appe hydro Tonic galac Feve piles

Sub Himalayan tracts, W.Bengal, Bihar India, Lower Himalaya

Under shrub vegetativel

Roots, leaves, seeds

Barbiturate, Impro hyponosis potentiation effect CVS active, Anas hypotensive, diuretic jaund

Thorny bambo

Interior stalks, young shoots, leaves

Emmenagogue, anthelmintic, astringent, stimulant

Vomi fever

shrub Bark, flower, root Astringent, carminative, laxative Leaf, bark Astringent, anthelmintic, cephalalgic

Ulcer

Barleria mysorensis

Acanthaceae

Malabar, Travancore

Bauhinia purpurea Linn.

Caesalpiniaceae

S.Asia, India

Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Caesalpiniaceae

191

Seed, tiller

tumo

Bauhinia tomentosa

Caesalpiniaceae

Bauhinia variegata Linn.

Caesalpiniaceae

Sub-Himalayan tracts, Dry forests

Tree

seed

Root, bark

Hypothermic, CNS active, anti-bacterial

Skin piles,

Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.) DC.

Oxalidaceae

Throughout India

herb

seed

Whole plant

Astringent, antipyretic, anti-septic

Feve haem dyse

Blepharis boerhaavifolia

Acanthaceae

Blepharistemma corymbosa Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.

Rhizophoraceae Nyctaginaceae

India

Creeping herb

vegetative

Herb and root

Bombax ceiba Linn.

Bombacaceae

India

Tree

seed

Brassica campestris Linn. Brassiccaceae

India

herb

seed

Under shrub

Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss. Brassica oleracea Linn. var. botrytis Linn. Breynia patens Benth.

Brassicaceae

India

herb

seed

Brassicaceae

India

herb

seed

Euphorbiaceae

Shrub

Bridelia crenulata Roxb.

Euphorbiaceae

Tree

Bridelia scandens (Roxb.) Euphorbiaceae Willd. Cucurbitaceae Bryonia sp.

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

Papilionaceae

Caesalpinia bonduc (Linn.) Roxb.

Caesalpiniaceae

India, Tropical Himalya, Sri Lanka, South East Asia, Malaysia India Deciduous tree S.India, W.Bengal

Papilionaceae

seed

Verbenaceae

Combretaceae Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Cananga odorata Hook. f. Annonaceae & Thom. Capparis sepiaria Linn.

Capparidaceae

Capparis zeylanica Linn.

Capparidaceae

Capsicum annum

Gum, seeds, flower, bark, leaves Seeds, nuts, root, bark, leaves

Anthelmintic, astringent, aperient

Diarr vomi

Antiperiodic, antispasmodic, anthelmintic, febrifuge Anti-cancer, antiinflammatory, semen coagulating

Feve

Climbing herb

seed

Tree

seed

Heart wood

shrub

seed

Seeds, beans, leaves Tender leaves

Arecaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Oede analg disea haem

Haem bite, chick Sore

Ches

Climbing shrub

Caesalpinia sappan Linn. Caesalpiniaceae Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Hook. f. Callicarpa tomentosa (Linn.) Murray Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br.

Laxative, diuretic, expectorant, emetic, purgative, anthelmintic, febrifuge Gum, seed, Astringent, leaves, fruit, bark, demulcent, diuretic, flower aphrodisiac, emetic Stem, root, Aperient, diuretic, leaves, seeds rubefacient Seed, oil Asperient, stimulant, emmengogue

shrub India

Milky shrub

India

Woody shrub tree

S.India

shrub

Solanaceae

India

Climbig shrub Annual shrub

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.

Sapindaceae

Throughtout India

Herb

Careya arborea Roxb.

Lecythidaceae

Carica papaya Linn.

Caricaceae

Carum bulbocastanum Koch

Apiaceae

India

192

Root, bark

febrifuge

seed

Whole plant

seed

Leaves, fruits, root Oil from flowers

Depurative, anthelmintic, expectorant Stimulant, Colic anthelmintic, laxative dyse Anti-rheumatism, Gout anti- malarial, antidiarrhoeal

fruit

Roots, leaves, seeds

Deciduous tree

seed

Soft wood tree

Seed, mount Fruits, latex layering

Herb

Skin diarrh pita, Antid spon Biliou dysp Hepa skin d Coug anas

Bark, leaves, flower, fruits

Thermogenic, digestive, carminative, cardio tonic Antibacterial, hypotensive, antirheumatism Astringent, thermogenic, expectorant Anti-fertility, anticoagulant, anthelmintic

Coug anore

Otalg lumb

Smal urorr

Ecbo verm

Carum carvi Linn.

Apiaceae

Oil

Caryota urens Linn.

Arecaceae

Tree

Cascabela thevetia (Linn.) Lippold Cassia fistula Linn.

Apocynaceae

Shrub

seed

Juice, spirit, nuts

Caesalpiniaceae

Throughout India

Tree

Seed

Whole plant

Cassia occidentalis Linn. Caesalpiniaceae

Throughout india

Under shrub seed

Whole plant

Cassia sophera Linn.

Caesalpiniaceae

Casuarina equisetifolia Linn. Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don Catunaregam nutans (DC.) Tiruv. Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Gagnep. Ceiba pentata (Linn.) Gaertn. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban

Casuarinaceae

Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss.

Chenopodiaceae

Cicca acida (Linn.) Merr.

Euphorbiaceae

Apocynaceae

Throughout tropical Under shrub seed India

India

Rubiaceae

Bombacaceae India

herb

seed

herb

vegetative

Meliaceae Tree

Rutaceae

oil

Stimulant, carminative Bark, oil Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge Root, bark, Stomachic, diuretic, leaves anthelmintic Whole palnt Aphrodisiac, carminative Fruit juice, rind of Stomachic, fruit antiscorbutic, anthelmintic Rind of fruit, fruit Stomachic, juice carminative, antiscorbutic

Thorny shrub seed

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook. f. Clematis triloba Heyne ex Roth Cleome gynandra Linn.

Rutaceae

seed

Herb

seed

Cleome viscosa Linn.

Capparidaceae

India

herb

seed

Whole plant

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f. Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon

Verbenaceae

Drier parts of India

shrub

seed

bark

Verbenaceae

india

Woody shrub seed

Roots, leaves

Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. Clitoria ternatea Linn.

Verbenaceae

india

shrub

seed

leaves

Papilionaceae

India

climber

seed

Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt.

Cucurbitaceae

India

climber

Tropical& subtropical India

shrub

Coffea arabica Linn.

Whole plant

Ranunculaceae

Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Menispermaceae Diels. Cochlospermum religiosum (Linn.) Alst. Cocos nucifera Linn.`

tree

leaves

Capparidaceae

Cochlospermacea India e Arecaceae S. India, Sri Lanka, Archipelago Rubiaceae S.India, Sri lanka

193

Hypotensive, sciative, Meno stomachic sting

Astringent, refrigerant Burn hyste Gum, root, young Alterative, laxative, leaf antidiabetic Whole plant Nerve tonic, brain Skin tonic lepro disea Seed, seed oil Amoebicidal, athle analgesic, diuretic amen Bark Astringent, spasmolytic, diuretic

Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm. Rutaceae f.

Euphorbiaceae

Anti-viral, anti-cacer, Skin hypoglycaemic syph Diuretic, antibacterial Dysp fever Spasmolytic, Ring anthelmintic, antiseptic Astringent colic

seed

Evergreen vegetative tree Ever green seed aromatic tree Climbing plant Tendril climber Thorny tree seed

Vitaceae

Wood, bark, leaves Whole plant

hemi

Berry

herb

Cinnamomum camphora Lauraceae Nees & Eberm. Lauraceae Cinnamomum verum Presl Cissampelos pareira Linn. Menispermaceae Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle

seed

Deciduous shrub Climbing shrub Tree

Vitaceae

Apiaceae

Tree

leaves

Stomachic, carminative

Seeds, roots, leaves Vegetatively Roots, leaves, by stem fruits cuttings Roots, leaves

Deciduous tree Tree

seed

Large shrub

seed

seed

Leaves, flowers, gum Flowers, roots, fruit, oil, ash Seeds, leaves

Coug dysp Diarr

Diarr

Fract

indig

Poison, Fish anticancer,astringent Alterative, sedative Syph lepro antifungal, anthelmintic, carminative Anthelmintic, Hypoglycaemic Antispasmolytic, expectorant, carminative Antiinflammatory, demulcent, vermifuge Purgative, diuretic, laxative Hypoglycaemic, antiprotozoal Cardio tonic, anticonvalasant

Otalg diarrh

Feve

Coug dysp

Tumo bronc Antid abdo Diabe gono

Ecze hype bronc stimulant Diarr trach Purgative, refrigerant, Nervo antacid arthri Dietetic, nervous Neur

stimulant Coffea robusta

Rubiaceae

Coix lacryma-jobi Linn.

Poaceae

Boraginaceae Coldenia procumbens Linn. Coleus amboinicus Lour. Lamiaceae Coleus zeylanicus (Benth.) Cramer Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott Commiphora caudata (Wt. & Arn.) Engl. Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Stocks

seed India

India

Perennial grass herb

seed

herb

Stem cutting leaves

Lamiaceae Araceae

Connaraceae Connarus monocarpus Linn. Coriandrum sativum Linn. Apiaceae

India

Africa, Asia, Rajasthan, A.P, Assam, M.P

India

Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. Costus speciosus (Koen.) Sm. Crataeva religiosa Hook. f. & Thom. Cressa cretica Linn.

Menispermaceae

Crossandra infundibuliformis Crotalaria juncea Linn.

Acanthaceae

Croton tiglium Linn.

Euphorbiaceae

Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schult. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Asclepiadaceae Amaryllidaceae

Sub tropical Himalaya, W.Ghats

Curcuma amada Roxb.

Zingiberaceae

India

Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Curcuma aromatica Salisb.

Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae

Curcuma longa Linn.

Zingiberaceae

Zingiberaceae

Perennial herb Tree

corm

Leaves, corms

seed

Roots, leaves

Small tree

Roots, leaves

Shrub

Seed, vegetative cuttings, grafts seed

Herb

seed

fruit

W.ghats of T.N and Climbing Kerala shrub India Herb

Capparidaceae Convolvulaceae

Leaves

India

Stem cutting stem rhizome

rhizome Bark, stem

Shrub

Whole plant

appetising, digestive

Ceph

Styptic,stimulant, rubefacient Astringent, aphrodisiac, diuretic Nypolipaemic, hypocholesteraemic, aphrodisiac

Haem otalg Diabe

Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, antibilious Thermogenic, anodyne, opthalmic Hypotensive, antifertility Laxative, rubefacient

Obes diabe

Eye d syph Rheu neura

Diabe ulcer cons asthm Incre bile Expectorant, Diabe digestive, haematinic asthm

Shrub seed N.India

Tree

seeds

Climber

Leaves, roots, seeds seeds

Root rhizomes

Wild throughtout india

Herb

rhizome

rhizome

India

Herb

rhizome

rhizome

India

India

roots

India

Twining herb

Roots, leaves

Poaceae

India

Seed, slips

Poaceae

Kerala

Poaceae

India

Poaceae

India

Poaceae

India

Perennial grass Perennial grass Perennial grass Perennial grass Perennial grass

Cymbopogon nardus var. Poaceae confertiflorus x C. jawarancusa Poaceae Cymbopogon pendulus Wats. Cymbopogon winterianus Poaceae

India

Perennial grass

slips

India

Perennial grass Perennial grass

seed, slips

India

194

Astringent, expectorant Digestive, carminative, antiinflammatory

Stom dysp Antid bite, disea

Hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic, anticancer Appetiser, carminative, digestive, demulcent Demulcent, anthelmintic Spasmolytic, carminative, stimulant Anti-inflammatory, emollient, depurative Emetic, alexipharmic

Skin jaund

Whole plant

Rhizomatous rhizome aromatic herb Herb rhizome

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Cymbopogon flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. Cymbopogon martinii var. motia Roxb. Cymbopogon martinii var. sofia Cymbopogon nardus (Linn.) Rendle

Stran pneu boils

Fruit, root

Small tree

Papilionaceae

Cyathula prostrata (Linn.) Amaranthaceae Bl. Menispermaceae Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thom.

Diuretic, cathartic,depurative Antirheumatic

Stem cutting leaves

Burseraceae Burseraceae

Roots,seeds

rhizome

Whole plant

seed, slips Oil

seed, slips

Leaf, oil

slips

Spra bronc leuco Eye d inflam Coug diarrh Metro disor

Thermogenic, carminative, depuratve Anthelmintic, laxative, Feve aphrodisiac neura

seed, slips

seed, slips

Dysp prurit

Antiseptic, carminative, rubefacient

Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Poaceae Pers. Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Linn

India

Perennial grass Herb

Tropics

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

Papilionaceae

India

Datura metel Linn.

Solanaceae

India

Delonix regia (Boj.) Rafin. Caesalpiniaceae

vegetative

Whole plant

Veg. by tuber seed

Bulbous tuber

Sub-shrub

seed

Whole plant

Emetic, narcotic, anodyne, antispasmodic

Swel ophth

Tree

seed leaf

astringent

Roots

Antiinflammatory., aphrodisiac, analgesic

Silicio near Vata, dyse

seeds

Bark, flower

Perennial herb Perennial grass Climbing herb climber

seeds

Whole plant

Antidiarrhoeal, antihaemorrhage Expectorant, galactogogue Astringent, diuretic

Tuber

Tuber, leaf

Whole plant

Haemostat, vulnerary Skin colpo Antiinflammatory, Diarr antipyretic, analgesic Anthelmintic, Obes antipyretic, analgesic

Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees Desmodium gangeticum DC.

Poaceae Papilionaceae

Lower hills and plains of india

Under shrub seed

Desmodium gyrans DC.

Papilionaceae

India

shrub

Desmodium pulchellum Backer Desmodium triflorum (Linn.) DC. Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

Papilionaceae

Dioscorea floribunda

Dioscoriaceae

Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.

Ebenaceae

Tree

seeds

Unripe fruit, leaf, fruit, bark

Dolichos biflorus Backer

Papilionaceae

twiner

seeds

seeds

Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Merr. Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.

Acanthaceae

seed

Whole plant

Elephantopus scaber Linn. Elettaria cardamomum Maton

Asteraceae

Embelia ribes Burm. f.

Myrsinaceae

India

Climbing shrub

Fruits, roots, leaves

Emilia sonchifolia DC.

Asteraceae

India

herb

Whole plant

Contraceptive, acaricidal, antibacterial Sudorific, vulnerary

Ensete superbum

Musaceae

Entada pursaetha DC.

Mimosaceae

Tropics

seeds

irritant

Erythrina variegata Linn.

Papilionaceae

India, Sri lanka, Thailand, Laos

Tree

Seed, stem cutting

Bark, leaves

Galactogogue, anthelmintic

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

Myrtaceae

Australia, India

Tree

seed

Dried leaves, gum, oil

Myrtaceae

Australia, India

Tree

seed

Dipht catar

Eupatorium triplinerve Vahl Euphorbia hirta Linn.

Asteraceae

Brazil, India

Sub shrub

seed seed

Euphorbia nivulia Buch.Ham.

Euphorbiaceae

Straggling herb Tree

Febrifuge, carminative, antiseptic Dried leaves, Diaphoretic,antiperiod flower tops, twigs ic, expectorant Seed, leaves Galactogogue, diuretic, aphrodisiac Expectorant, digestive, stomachic, abortive Whole plant Laxative, antibacterial, alexipharmic

Milky juice

Ear a sleen

Papilionaceae

India

Poaceae Dioscoreaceae

Asteraceae

Native of Central America, India, China

Sri Lanka, India, Africa, Malaya India

seed

Tuber, stem tubers cuttings

Rigid herb

Roots, leaves

India Zingiberaceae

Perennial herb

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia tirucalli Linn.

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia tirucalli Linn.

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia trigona Haw.

Euphorbiaceae

India

Herb

Tree

195

Seed, sucker

seed

seed

Absc flatul Diarr

Antidysenteric, Sore antisyphilic dyse Carbohydrale, protein Cont metabolism Carminative, astringent, laxative, aphrodisiac, anaemia Astringent, diuretic, tonic

Shrub herb

ophth

Antihepatic, hematicidal, CVS active Astringent, alterative, febrifuge Anticephalalgia, antiemetic

Epist scab

Haem leuco Itchin tooth Dysu disor

Skin tetan Foul of he kidne Ches disea affec Gast nycta

Obes worm

Dysp sores Skin coug Lepro drops

Dysm helm

Evolvulus alsinoides (Linn.) Linn. Excoecaria agallocha Linn. Ficus bengalensis Linn.

Convolvulaceae

Ficus exasperata Vahl

Moraceae

Herb

Whole plant leaves

Euphorbiaceae

India

Tree

Moraceae

Sub-Himalaya, Peninsular India

Tree

seed

Ficus heterophylla Linn. f. Moraceae

Tonic, alterative, febrifuge Purgative, alterative

Aerial root, bark, leaves, buds, fruits, latex

Hypoglycaemic, astringent,

Root, leaves

Antiasthmatic, antidysenteric Astringent, acrid

Bech

Bark, leaves, tender shoots, fruits, seeds, latex Root, fruit

Antibacterial, hypoglycaemic, anthelmintic

Gono diarrh neura

Depurative, diuretic

Bark, leaves, fruits

Astringent, refrigerant, diaphoretic Astringent, thermogenic, constipation

Rheu disor Odon haem

Ficus microcarpa Linn. f.

Moraceae

India

Tree

Ficus racemasa Linn.

Moraceae

Ficus religiosa Linn.

Moraceae

Sub_Himalayam tracts Ever green tree India

Veg. by Root, bark, stem cutting leaves bark

Tree

seed

Flacourtia indica Merr.

Flacourtiaceae

Odon diarrh Astringent, antiseptic Gono leuco

Small tree Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch.

Flacourtiaceae

Deciduous shrub

Garcinia gummi-gutta (Linn.) Robs.

Clusiaceae

Trees

seed

Leaves, dried fruits

Geophila reniformis

Rubiaceae

Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Gloriosa superba Linn.

Urticaceae Climbing herb

Seed, rhizome, tissue culture

Roots, rhizomes

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.

Rutaceae

Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.

Papilionaceae

Mediterranean region, S. Europe, Middle East

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Verbenaceae

India

Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.

Asclepiadaceae

India, Afganistan, Iran

Hedyotis corymbosa (Linn.) Lam. Helicteres isora Linn.

Rubiaceae

Liliaceae

Tropical India, S. Africa

Antiinflammatory, antianaemic, antirheumatic Under shrub Seed, crown Roots, dried stem Antidiuretic, cutting, expectorant, emetic, stolon diuretic pieces Tree Whole plant Hypoglycaemic, antiviral, stomachic climber vegetatively Whole plant Antidiabetiic Whole plant

Sterculiaceae

Suffruticose annual Large shrub

Heliotropium indicum Linn. Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br.

Boraginaceae

Herb

roots

Asclepiadaceae

India, Sri Lanka, Moluccas

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.

Malvaceae

Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn.

Malvaceae

Tropical Africa, Ever green Stem cutting Roots, leaves, Asia woody shrub flower Tropical Africa, Seed, leaf Asia, warmer parts of India W.Bengal, Root, flower, bark Peninsular India, Andaman &Nicibar islands

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Don

Apocynaceae

Deciduous tree

Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. Homonoia riparia Lour.

Ulmaceae

Tree

Malvaceae,

Asclepiadaceae Euphorbiaceae

Oxytoxic, uterine, stimulant

Whole plant

India, Sri Lanka, Burma, W.China India

196

Twiner

Twiner shrub

Root, bark, fruits

Veg. by root Roots, leaves, stem

seed, root cutting

Feve debil Ulcer aphro Vomi haem leuco

diges

Derm canc

Ecze comp

Tube skin d woun

Feve burni Bron urina

Aperient, pectoral, Depr refrigerant hepa Demulcent, lactifuge Gast diabe Errhine Insan coug Antibacterial, antiviral Pita, disea Demulcent, febrifuge, emollient Aphrodisiac, antiscorbutic, antibilious Aperient, antirheumatic, resolvent

Absc ureth Nerve calcif

Bark, leaves, seeds

Carminative, expectorant, anthelmintic

Verm dyse

roots

Antidiabetic, antiviral Bron urina Diuretic, Ulcer antigonorrhoea, pain, antisyphilitic

Root, fruit, stem

Lumb

Hugonia mystax Linn.

Linaceae

Violaceae Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn. f.) Muell. Flacourtiaceae Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst) Sleum. Hygrophila schulli (Ham.) Acanthaceae M. R. & S. M. Almeida Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R. Br. Indigofera tinctoria Linn.

Peninsular india

Scandent shrub

Root, bark

India

herb

Whole plant

W.ghats

Tree

Seed oil

Antileperotic, diuretic

India

Shrub

Roots, leaves, seeds, ashes Leaf, root, stalk

India

Climbing shrub shrub

Diuretic, antiinflammatory, aphrodisiac Febrifuge, antisyphilitic, Antipiretic, anticephalgic

India

Climber

Root

Aphrodisiac, galactogenic, chologogue

Flower, root

Antileucoderma, antidiarrhoeal, sedative Anthelmintic, diuretic emmenagogue Emmenagogue

Apocynaceae Papilionaceae

Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. Convolvulaceae

seed

Whole plant

Febrifuge, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory

Swel for sn

Jaun

Dysp skin d Hepa disea leuco Scorp

Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn. Convolvulaceae Ixora coccinea Linn.

Rubiaceae

Shrub

Jasminum grandiflorum Linn. Jasminum sambac Ait.

Oleaceae Oleaceae

India

Jatropha curcas Linn.

Euphorbiaceae

Twining ever Stem cutting Leaves, flower green shrub Climbing Stem cutting Whole plant shrub Shrub Nut, whole plant

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb.

Euphorbiaceae

Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. Justicia betonica

Euphorbiaceae

Tropical America, India, Andaman & Nicobar islands S.India, Shrub W.Bengal,Andama n & Nicobar islands India Shrub

Acanthaceae

Oil, root Leaves, bark, seed Bark, leaves, root stalks

Shrub

Justicia gendarussa Linn. Acanthaceae f. Acanthaceae Justicia wynadensis

W. ghats

Under shrub

Kaempferia galanga Linn. Zingiberaceae

India

Perennial herb

Kaempferia rotunda Linn. Zingiberaceae

India

Lagenaria siceraria

Cucurbitaceae

India

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Moldenke

Verbenaceae

Lawsonia inermis Linn.

Purgative Antirheumatic, antiparalytic, purgative Emmenagogue, purgative, emetic Emetic, antiperiodic, insecticide

Dysm hemo troub worm sting Mout insan Scab

Chro swell

Ecze

Feve rheum dyse

Under shrub Emetic, antiperiodic

rhizome

Root, leaves, bark, stalks Tuber

Aromatic herb Climber

rhizome

tuber

Thermogenic, Gast sialagogue, vulneray ulcer Emetic, purgative Jaun

India

Ever green shrub

seed

Lythraceae

India

Leea indica Merr.

Vitaceae

India

Ever green shrub Shrub

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spr. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce Limonia acidissima Linn.

Lamiaceae

India

Annual herb

Lippia nodiflora Mich.

Verbenaceae

Litchi chinensis Sonner.

Sapindaceae

Scrophulariaceae Rutaceae

Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth Lobeliaceae ex Roem. & Schult. Euphorbiaceae Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Myrsinaceae Maesa indica Wall. Mangifera indica Linn.

Anacardiaceae

Pulp, leaves

Deccumbent herb Deciduous tree

S.India

Whole plant

Antirheumatic, antimalarial

Whole plant

Antibacterial, antiinflammatory Astringent, sudorific, acrid Insecticidal, antipyretic

Root, leaves seed

Bron Inflam Stimulant, Skin expectorant, diuretic, woun carminative

Whole plant

Fruit, leaves oil

China, India

Fruit, leaves

W.ghats

Leaves, root

Rheu tetan visce Skin burns Hype dyse Psori skin d

Antiscorbutic, Sore antibilious, demulcent skin d

antiseptic

Tonic anim scorp

Tree w.ghats

Berry, leaves

Tropics

Tree

197

seed

Anthelmintic

Anthe antis

Maranta arundinacea Linn.

Zingiberaceae

India

Herb

Rhizome

Rhizome

Melia azedarach Linn.

Meliaceae

India, Sub Himalaya

Tree

seed

Bark, leaves flower oil

Mentha arvensis Linn.

Lamiaceae

Japan, J & K, UP, Punjab

Aromatic herb

sucker

oil

Mesua nagassarium (Burm. f.) Kosterm.

Clusiaceae

North eastern India Tree Andaman & Nicobar islands Eastern Himalaya, Ever green Assam, S.India tree

Seed

Flower oil

seed

Bark, root, flower Expectorant, fruit, oil abortifacient, contraceptive Root, leaves, Purgative, stem antidropsical, antiinflammatory Bark, flower, Spermicidal, fruit, seed spasmolytic, diuretic

Absc colic

Root, leaves, stem

Purgative, antidropsical, antiinflammatory

Piles

Root, leaves,

Antidiarrhoeal

Michelia champaca Linn. Magnoliaceae Mimosa pudica Linn.

Mimosaceae

Tropical America, Tropical India

Under shrub seed

Mimusops elengi Linn.

Sapotaceae

North Andaman & Nicobar islands Peninsular India

Tree

Mirabilis jalapa Linn.

Nyctaginaceae

Mollugo oppositifolia Linn. Aizoaceae Morinda umbellata Linn.

Rubiaceae

Moringa oleifera Lam.

Moringaceae

Mucuna pruriens (Linn.) DC.

Deciduous tree Tree

Papilionaceae

India, Andaman & Nicobar islands

Climber

Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roemer Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. Musa paradisiaca Linn. var. sapientum Kuntze

Cucurbitaceae

India

Climber

Mussaenda frondosa Linn.

Rubiaceae

Tropical Himalaya, Scandent Dehra Dun shrub

Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Myristicaceae

Moluccas, T.N, Tree Kerala, A.P, Assam

Naregamia alata Wt. & Arn. Nerium oleander Linn.

Meliaceae

W.ghats, TN, Karnataka India

Nervilia aragoana Gaud.

Orchidaceae

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn. Nymphaea rubra Roxb.

Oleaceae

Ochrocarpus longifolius

Clusiaceae

Ocimum americanum Linn. Ocimum basilicum Linn.

Lamiaceae

Large shrub

Leaves

Shrub

Musaceae

Tall herb

Lamiaceae

Lamiaceae Ocimum gratissimum Linn. Lamiaceae Ocimum gratissimum Linn. var. clocimum Ocimum tenuiflorum Linn. Lamiaceae Operculina turpethum (Linn.) S. Manso

Terrestrial orchid

Abortifacient, spasmolytic, antibacterial, Root, leaves, Emmenagogue, seed antichorein, vermifuge Root, leaves, Carminative, tender shoot sudorific, aperient Bark, root, leaves Febrifuge, tonic, stomachic Root, leaves, Anthelmintic, fruit, stem antiscorbutic, depurative Whole plant Vermifuge, diuretic, antiasthmatic, spasmolytic Seed, aril Antibacterial, antidiarrhoeal, abortifacient, Root, leaves, Cholagogue, stem antibilious Root, leaves, Cardio tonic, CNS bark active, spasmolytic Whole plant Galactogogue, diuretic

Rutaceae

Nymphaeaceae

Convolvulaceae

Carminative, expectorant, antifungal Antiinflammatory, CNS depressant

Dysp dyse

Scrof disea

Anae piles,

Hydro fistula

Feve dyse

Herb Bihar, Khari hills, India Sub-Himalayan tracts, UP, India

Apocynaceae

Seed

Astringent, refrigerant, aphrodisiac Antidiarrhoeal, deobstruent, diuretic

Outer Himalya, Assam, W.Bengal Warmer India

Seed, Vegetative seed

sucker

Seed

Under shrub Shrub

Seed

Root, bark, leaves, seed

giddi vene denta Eleph

Vertig

hype

Bliste ophth

Swel ulcer

Child disor

Poiso for ul Urop colic

Antiinflammatory, febrifuge, cholagogue Root stalk, flower Stomachic, Piles antidiarrhoeal heart

Tree Lower hills of India Branched herb Punjab Aromatic herb

seed

India

seed

seed

Whole plant

Carminative, diaphoretic, stimulant Flower, seed, root Carminative, antidysenteric, stimulant, demulcent Whole plant Antiparalytic, antigonorrhoea

Skin bronc Bowe

Ear a bronc

Semi neura

seed India

Under shrub seed

Leaves, root, seed

India

Climber

Root

198

Expectorant, diaphoretic, genito urinary deseases Purgative, antidote, antiinflammatory

Scorp bite

Opuntia dillenii (KerGawler) Haworth

Cactaceae

Oroxylum indicum (Linn.) Bignoniaceae Vent.

Shrub India

Stem cutting

Tree

Whole plant Root, bark, fruit, seed

Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. Ougeinia dalbergioides

Lamiaceae

Herb

Papilionaceae

Deciduous tree

Bark

Oxalis corniculata Linn.

Oxalidaceae

Annual or perennial herb

Whole plant

Pavetta indica Linn.

Rubiaceae

India

Phoenix dactylifera Linn.

Arecaceae

Dry regions of Gujarat, Rajastan, Punjab

Tree

Fruit, gum, fresh sap

Phoenix pusilla Gaertn.

Arecaceae

Coromandal coast

Tree

Fruit pulp, seed, gum

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Euphorbiaceae

Root, leaves, wood

Throughout warmer Herb parts of India S.India, Kashmir Tree

Physalis minima Linn.

Solanaceae

India, Himalaya

Pimenta racemosa J. W. Moore

Myrtaceae

W.Indies, tropical America

Seed

Whole plant

Seed

Root, bark, leaves, fruit, Leaves, fruit

Annual herb seed

Fruit, leaf, oi, seed

Pinus Roxburghii Sargent Pinaceae

Himalaya, Kashmir Coniferous to Bhutan tree

Pine oil

Piper betle Linn.

India

Perennial root climber

Stem cutting Leaves, oil, root

Antigonorrhoeic, antiinflammatory, purgative, Astringent, carminative, purgative, spasmolytic

Whoo optha

Scorp

Astringent, acrid, sudorific, styptic

Inflam diarrh anae Astringent, anodyne, Scurv antiseptic Purgative, antidropsical, anticephalalgic Antiasthmatic, expectorant, astringent, antidiarrhoeal Febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal, laxative Antihepatotoxic, antibacterial Antiviral, CVS active Diuretic, purgative, antigonorrhoeic Carminative, stomachic, antiseptic, fever Antiseptic, expectorant, carminative, stimulant Antispasmodic, carminative, stimulant

Jaun ulcer

Urino

Resp urina

Dysp ulcer Jaun troub

Sore pheu

Arthr coug

Night catar

Piper chaba Hunter

Piperaceae

Piper longum Linn.

piperaceae

W.India, Nepal, W.Ghats

Climber

Vegetative

Piper nigrum Linn.

Piperaceae

Vegetative

Pistia stratiotes Linn.

Araceae

Eastern and Climber weatern ghats, TN, Keara India

Plumbago indica Linn.

Plumbaginaceae

Native of Sikkim, India

Herb

Vegetative

Root

Sialogogue, vesicant, Dysp stimulant lepro

India

Herb

Vegetative

Leaves, root

India

Tree

Root, bark, flower, fruit

Uterine, stimulant, abortifacient Cathartic bechic, antidontalgic

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Plumbaginaceae Plumeria rubra Linn.

Apocynaceae

Lamiaceae Pogostemon patchouli Hook. f. Annonaceae Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Papilionaceae Pierre

Root, dried spikes Antitubercular, anthelmintic, antibacterial Fruit Antibacterial, anthelmintic, hypertensive Whole plant Antitubercular, emollient, diuretic

Para snak

Feve soret

Ring comp disea

Lepro disea

Stem cutting Drier parts of India

Tree

seed

Bark

Febrifuge, fungitoxic

India

Tree

Seed, veg by root

Leaves, seed, root

Portulaca oleracea Linn.

Portulacaceae

Pothos scandens Linn.

Araceae

Premna integrifolia Linn.

Verbenaceae

Costal regions of India

Whole plant

Premna latifolia Roxb.

Verbenaceae

India

Leaves, bark

Antibacterial, Dysp antifungal, beri b insecticidal Liver, spleen, kidney complaints Antileptic, lactogogue Absc pox, Antirheumatic, Neur stimulant, bechic, astringent Diuretic, antidropsical colic

Prunus amygdalus

Rosaceae

India

Kernal oil

Laxative, diuretic,

India

Whole plant Depurative, antiscorbutic Root, stem

Tree

199

Ceph

Batsch

lithontriptic

Prunus cerasoides D. Don Pseudarthria viscida (Linn.) Wt. & Arn.

Rosaceae

Himalaya

Large tree

Papilionaceae

India

Perennial under shrub

Psidium guajava Linn.

Myrtaceae

Psoralea corylifolia Linn.

Papilionaceae

India

Annual herb

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Papilionaceae

Tropical S.India

Pterocarpus santalinus Linn.

Papilionaceae

Punica granatum Linn.

Punicaceae

Raphanus sativus Linn.

Brassicaceae

Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz. Rhaphidophora pertusa Schott Rhinacanthus nastus (Linn.) Kurz. Ricinus communis Linn.

Apocynaceae

Euphorbiaceae

India

Rotula aqautica Lour.

Boraginaceae

Rubia cordifolia Linn.

Rubiaceae

Ruta graveolens Linn.

Rutaceae

Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Saccharum spontaneum Linn. Salacia reticulata Wt.

Poaceae

Sansevieria Roxburghiana Schult. Santalum album Linn.

Kernal, tender branch Root

coug

Antilithic, spasmolytic

Hear

seed

Root, leaves, flower, fruit Root, leaves, seed

Astringent, antibilious, antirheumatic Haemostatic, antiemetic Antidiarrhoeal, diaphoretic febrifuge

Tree

Seed

Boils disea

AP

Deciduous tree

seed

Leaves, stem, Hypoglycaemic, bark, heart wood, CVS active gum Heart wood Antibilious, diaphoretic, febrifuge

Iran, Afghanistan, India

Shrub

Seed, air layering

Root, seed, flower, fruit

Stren vomi

Root, leaves, flower, seed

antifertility, antibacterial, hypothermic Appetising, antibacterial, anodyne Antiarrhythmic, antihypertensive Carminative, astringent, digestive Blister producer, depurative Antiprotozoal, anticancer

India

Root

Diuretic, CNS active

Hilly dists. Of India Climber herb Veg. by stem India Herb Veg. by seed Gigantic Stem cutting grass Perennial Stem cutting grass India, Andaman & Woody Nicobar islands climber

Root

Antineoplastic, antiinflammatory Decreases capillary fragility Diuretic, demulcent

Piles disea Antid paral stran

Haemodoraceae

Coromandal coast

Herb

Santalaceae

Dry region of India

Tree

Seed

Tender shoot, rhizome Heart wood

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt. Saussurea lappa C. B. Clarke Scaevola taccada

Caesalpiniaceae

Tree

Seed

Asclepiadaceae

India, Andaman & Nicobar islands W.Bengal

Bark, leaves, flower, seed Stem, root

Asteraceae

Kashmir, HP, UP

Sub shrub

Seed

Root

Goodeniaceae

India

Shrub

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken Sesbania grandiflora (Linn.) Poiret Sida acuta Burm. f.

Sapindaceae

Sub Himalayas, Large tree Kashmir, W.Bengal Assam, W.Bengal Soft wooded seed tree Warmer parts of India

Sida cordifolia Linn.

Malvaceae

Small tree

Herb

Root, leaves, seed Root, seed

Araceae

Herbaceous Seed under shrub Stout climber

Acanthaceae

Under shrub

Whole plant

Poaceae Celastraceae

Papilionaceae Malvaceae

Malvaceae Sida rhombifolia Linn. ssp. retusa (Linn.) Borss. Solanaceae Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum khasianum C. B. Solanaceae Clarke

India

Tree

Seed

Twiner

Stem

Whole plant, oil Root, stem Root, stem Root

Leaves, stem, bark, fruit Bark, kernal, oil, seed Bark, leaf juice Root,

Plain of India

Root, seed

Hotter parts of India Sub shrub

Whole plant

Haem diarrh Leuc disea

Scorp ache

Hepa disor

Hype stran Colon bronc helm

Derm

Cooling, diuretic, galactogogue Antidiabetic, astringent

Haem uropa Urop gastr Vene dysm

Expectorant

Coug

CVS active, Feve antibacterial, bladd antifungal Oxytocic, CNS active Seda disch Emetic, hypothermic Snak dogs CNS depressent, Asthm antifungal rheum Anticephalalgia, Sore antidiarrhoeal antitu Astringent, Burn antiinflammatory ulcer Astringent, Nasa anticephalalgic pox Astringent, febrifuge, Nervo stomachic disor comp Antiparalytic, Colic aphrodisiac sperm sciati Anabolic, emolient Gene fever

seed Khasi, Naga hills, Assam

200

Shrub

seed

Berries

Spasmolytic, Synthesis of corticosteroidal

Oral table

hormone Solanum melongena Linn. Solanaceae var. insanum (Linn.) Prain Solanaceae Solanum surattense Burm. F. Solanum torvum Swartz Solanaceae

India

Perennial herb Perennial under shrub

India India

seed

Seed

seed

Root, berry, leaves Fruit

seed

Stimulant, anticholesterolemic Antiasthmatic, antirheumatic Spasmolytic

Solanum violaceum Ortega Solanum virginianum Linn. Sphaeranthus africanus Linn. Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

Solanaceae

Asteraceae

India

Spilanthes calva DC.

Asteraceae

India

Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz. Stereospermum suaveolens DC.

Anacardiaceae

India

Tree

Bignoniaceae

India

Tree

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. Strychnos potatorum Linn. f. Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore Syzygium aromaticum (Linn.) Merr.

Loganiaceae

India

Tree

Loganiaceae Symplocaceae

S.India, W. Bengal Deciduous tree Himalaya, Kashmir Tree

Seed

Myrtaceae

India

Ever green tree

seed

Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels

Myrtaceae

India

Large tree

seed

Syzygium jambos (Linn.) Myrtaceae Alst. Syzygium zeylanicum DC. Myrtaceae

India

Large shrub

seed

Antidontalgia, spasmolytic Bark, leaves Antidigestive, antiscorbutic Root, bark, flower Diuretic, antiinflammatory, aphrodisiac, antibilious Bark, leaves, Spasmolytic, muscle seed relaxant Leaves, unripe Diaphoretic, fruit, seed alexeteric, demulcent Bark CNS & CVS active, hypotensive, antiinflammatory Dried flower, bud Carminative, oil antispasmolytic, antiemetic, stimulant Bud, leaves Astringent, carminative, diuretic, antidiabetic Bark, leaves, fruit Astringent, diuretic

seed

Whole plant

haem

Sore

Enlar splee

Solanaceae Asteraceae

Whole plant Herb

India

Whole plant

Seed, Veg

Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) Roem. & Schult. Tamarindus indica Linn.

Apocynaceae

Sub-Himalaya, W.Bengal, Assam

Shrub

cutting

Caesalpiniaceae

India

Tree

seed

Tectona grandis Linn. f.

Verbenaceae

India

Tree

Tephrosia purpurea Pers. Papilionaceae

India Perennial herb

Diuretic, alterative, aphrodisiac Diuretic, expectorant, Pecto febrifuge, stomachic scrof

Prom

earac

hiccu

jaun leuco Jaun

Opha bleed meno Dysp irritat

Liver sore

Stimulant, vermifuge, antirheumatic Latex, root, flower Antiinflammatory, Sore antidiarhhoeal disea Root,ashes, leaves, flower, fruit, seed Root, wood, bark Root, leaves, seed oil

Antigonorrhoea, purgative, antiasthmatic Diuretic, anthelmintic, expectorant, anticephalalgia Anthelmintic, alexipharma

Liver colic,

Combretaceae

MP, Bihar

Tree

Seed

Combretaceae

India

Tree

Seed

Terminalia catappa Linn.

Combretaceae

India

Tree

Seed

India, sub Himalaya, deciduous forest Western and eastern ghats

Tree

Seed

Tree

Flower, bark

Anticholerin, diuretic, parot cardio tonic

Drier parts of India

Tree

Bark

Cardiac stimulant

Ever green tree

Root, bark, fruit, leaves Root

Terminalia paniculata Roth

Combretaceae

Terminalia tomentosa Wt. & Arn. Thespesia populnea (Linn.) Sol. ex Corr. Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.) Miers Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. & Thom.

Combretaceae

Tinospora malabarica

Malvaceae

CVS & CNS active, diuretic, abortifacient Bark, kernal, fruit astringent, cardio tonic, stimulant, anticancer Bark, oil from Diuretic, astringent, kernal, leaves cardio tonic Fruit, flower, Antispasmodic, stem, bark hypoglycaemic

Anur bronc

Terminalia arjuna Wt. & Arn. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae

Bark

Ulcer woun

Menispermaceae

India

Menispermaceae

India

Climber shrub

Stem cutting Stem, leaves, root

Menispermaceae

India

Climber

Stem, leaves,

201

Ulcer tumo Anae leuco diarrh Scab

Piles ophth

Callo diarrh Astringent, Scab antibilious, antiviral sprai Antidote, CVS active Snak hypothermic Antiviral, Gene hypoglycaemic, disea anticancer Antiviral, Gene

(Lam.) Miers

shrub

root

Herb

Fruit

hypoglycaemic, anticancer Emetic, emmenagogue, antiasthmatic Diaphoretic, alterative

disea

Trachyspermum Roxburghianum (DC.) Sprague Tragia involucrata Linn.

Apiaceae Euphorbiaceae

Warmer region of India

Twining herb

Root, fruit

Tribulus terrestris Linn.

Zygophyllaceae

India

Fruit, leaves

Antileprotic, haemostatic

Impo burni

Trichopus zeylanicus

Dioscoreaceae

India

Annual or perennial herb Herb

Leaves,

Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn.

Cucurbitaceae

India

Climber

Seed, suckers Seed

CNS active, hypothermic Cytotoxic against human carcinomal cells

Piles diure lepro

Seed

Leaves, seed

Diuretic, CNS depressive, hypotensive Bacteriostatic, emetic, cathartic Astringent, antidysenteric

Bron heart

Bulb

Expectorant, cyanogenetic

Root, juice

Antipyretic,

Jaun disea haem Heals

Tridax procumbens Linn. Asteraceae Trigonella foenumgraecum Linn.

Papilionaceae

Tylophora indica (Burm. Asclepiadaceae f.) Merr. Typha elephantina Roxb. Typhaceae

Wild India Kashmir, Herb Punjab, Upper Gangetic plains Climber

Root, leaves Ripe fruit, rhizome

Araceae

Uraria lagopoides (Linn.) Desv. Urginea indica Kunth

Papilionaceae

Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don Vanilla planifolia

Orchidaceae

Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less.

Asteraceae

Herb

Asteraceae

Annual herb

Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash Vitex negundo Linn.

Poaceae

Vitex trifolia

Verbenaceae

Aromatic shrub

Vitis vinifera Linn.

Vitaceae

Tendril climber

Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr.

Asteraceae

Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal

Solanaceae

India

Herb

Veg.

Whoo gout, Ulcer meas

Orchidaceae

India

Shrub

Verbenaceae

Lythraceae Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) Apocynaceae R. Br. Zingiber officinale Rosc. Zingiberaceae Zizyphus rugosa Lam.

coug

Herb

Typhonium flagelliforme

Liliaceae

Whole plant

Hiccu troub

Seed

Anthelmintic, stomachic, diuretic Whole plant Astringent, diaphoretic, antirheumatic slips Whole plant CNS active, antimicrobial Stem cutting Antiinflammatory, analgesic, CNS depressant Leaves, root, fruit, Antiinflammatory, expectorant, emmenagogue Stem cutting Ripe fruit, leaves, Haematinic, stem, flower rejuvenating suppurative juice of leaves Alterative, anticephalalgic

Drier parts of India

Under shrub Seed

Root, leaves

India, Himalaya

Shrub

Flower

Central peninsular India

Tree

Seed

Perennial Rhizome rhizomatous herb

Rhamnaceae

Leaves, bark, seed Rhizome Bark

202

Skin scorp Mala

Feve stran Cata piles,

Amen sprai

Flatu debil

Meno

Anabolic, galactogogue, CNS active Antibiotic, abortifacient Tonic, aphrodisiac, febrifuge Antidropscidal, stimulant, stomachic

leuco insom

Astringent, antidiarrhoeal

Ulcer

Haem liver Dyse disea Throa

IX. Scientific, English and vernacular names of tropical medicinal plants Scientific Name

English

Sanskrit

Bengali

Malayalam

Tamil

Kannada

Telu

Abelmoschus moschatus (Linn.) Medicus Abrus precatorius Linn. Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet Acacia catechu Willd. Acacia intsia Willd.

Ladie’s Finger, Okra

Lata kasturika Guj

Mushkdana

Kasthurivenda

Varttilai-kasturi

Kasturi-bende

Kas

Wild liquorice

Gunja

Guncai

Chimhati

Kunni

Kuntumani

Gunji

Gur

Atibala

Kanghi

Potari

Ooram

Tutti

Shrimud rigida

Nug

Khadirah

Khair, Khaira Kuth

Karingali

Karumkali

Kaggali

Kha

Balamunja

Sinni

Chinni

Chin

Indian acalypha Haritamanjari Kuppikhokhli Muktajari

Kuppameni

Kuppaimeni

Kuppi

Kup

Prickly chaff flower plant Sweet flag

Apang

Vankadaladi

Nayuruvi

Utranigida

Utta

Ugra gandha , Vaca Vasa Adusa

Buch

Vayampu

Vasampu

Bajai

Vas

Bakas

Chittadalotakam

Adutoda

Malabar nut

Vasaka

Arusha

Bakas

Aadalotakam

Adatodai

Adumuttada

Add

Bael tree Holy fruit tree

Bilva Sriphal Bhadra

Bel

Baela

Koovalam

Vilvam

Bilvapatra

Bilv

Chaya

Chaya

Cherula

Cerupulai

Visamustih

Visadodi

Uchunti

Appa

Pumpillu

Nayitulasi

Mahanimba

Maharukh

Perumaram

Dodda

Pad

Ankolah

Dhera

Akar kanta

Perumaram, Pongiliam Ankolam

Alangi

Guddadagoni

Ank

Sirisha

kanujera

Amluki

Vaaka

Katturinjil

Hottubange

Chin

Siris tree

Shirisha

Siris

Siris

Nenmenivaka

Vaghe

Doddabage

Dira

Onion

Palanduh

Pyaj

Pyanj

Ull, Savalla

Venkayam Irulli

Nirulli

Niru

Vellaipuntu

Belluli

Tell

Mukkannanpezhu Amalai

Sisidale

Era

Kattarvazha

Sirukattalai

Lolesara

chin

Ped dum Eda

Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. Acalypha indica Linn. Achyranthes aspera Linn. Acorus calamus Linn. Adhatoda beddomei C. B. Clarke Adhatoda zeylanica Medicus Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Corr. Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Alangium salviifolium (Linn. f.) Wang. Albizia chinensis (Osb.) Merr. Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Benth. Allium cepa Linn.

Cutch tree, Black catechu Soap bark

Goat weed

Sage leaved alangium

Small onion Allium cepa var. aggregatum Allium sativum Linn. Garlic

Hindi

Incha

Apamangah

Circita

Add

Pon

Chuvannulli Lasunah

Triputah Allophyllus serratus Radlk. Indian aloe Ghrta kumari Aloe barbadensis Mill. Taraka Alpinia allughas Rosc. Lesser galangal Alpinia calcarata Rosc. Alpinia galanga Sw. Greater galangal Sugandhamul Rasna Devil tree Saptaparnah Alstonia scholaris (Linn.) R. Br. Visaghni Alstonia venenata R. Alstonia Br. Prickly Tanduliya Amaranthus amaranthus spinosus Linn. Agnigarva Ammannia baccifera Blistering ammania Linn. Ela Amomum subulatum Greater cardomom Roxb. Elephant foot Arsaghana Amorphophalus yam companulatus (Roxb.) Bl. Cashew-nut tree Vrkkaphalah Anacardium occidentale Linn. Pellitory Akara-karava Anacyclus pyrethrum DC Green chiretta Bhunimbah Andrographis paniculata Nees

Lahasun

Lashan

Tippani Ghikumari

Ghrtkumar

Veluthulli

Taro

Malayinjikkuva

Kulainjam

Kulanjan

Arattai

Dumbarasmi

Shaitan ka jat

Chatwan

Chittaratha, Kolinchi Aratha, Chittaratha Ezhilampala

Elilappalai

Janthalla

Analivegam

Sinnappalai

Addasarpa

Katalichaulai Kanta-notiya Mullancheera

Kulluk-kirai

Malluharivesoppu Mul

Dadmari

Dadmari

Kalluruvi

Nirumel neruppu

Bari elachi

Bari elachi

Perelam

Periya yelam

Dodda-yelakkai

Agh pak Ped

Zaminkand

Ol

Chena

Karnai kilangu

Suvarna gadde

Kan

Kaju

Hiji-badam

Kasumavu

Mundiri

Gerubija

Jidi-

Akara-kara

Akara-kara

Akkikaruka

Akkirakkaram

Kakamegh

Kalmegh

Kiryath

Nilavempu

Kreata

Nela

203

Anisochilus carnosus Wall. Anisomeles malabarica R. Br. Annona squamosa Linn. Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Areca catechu Linn.

Malabar catmint Vaikuntah Mahadronah Custard apple Sitaphalam

Aristolochia bracteolata Ham. Aristolochia indica Linn. Artemisia pallens

Sitaphal

Ata

Upas tree

Valakala

Rohituka tree

Rohitakah

Harinhara

Tikataraj

Pugah

Supari

Supari

Arecanut palm Betelnut palm Argemone mexicana Prickly poppy Mexican poppy Linn. Argyreia speciosa Sweet

Punjiri-kapat Codhara

Elephant creeper Woolly morning creeper Worm killer Bracteated birthwort Indian birthwort

Mathilkkoorka, Karppooravalli Karimthumba

Karpuravalli

Irattaipeyamaratti Karitumbe

Chin

Aatha, Seethappazham Maravuri, Arayanalli Chemmaram

Sitaphalam Atta Ali

Sitaphala

Sita

Semmaram

Mullumanthala

Che

Pakkurnamaram

Adike

Pok

Ponnumatai

Datturi

Bra

Samuttirapalai

Samudravalli

Cha

Aaduthinnappala, Adutinnappalai Easwaramooli

Adumuttagadi

Gad

Garudakkodi, Karalakam Davana

Isvaramuli

Gopataputtipalai

Dula

Davanam

Davana

Bramhadandi Bharband

Siyalkanta

Kamuku, Adackamaram Brahmadanthi

Samudrapala Samandarka ka-pat

Goguli

Samudrappacha

Kitamari

Kitamar

Isvari

Isvarmul

Isharmul

Davana

Doddapatri

Kar

Ajanapatte

Indian worm weed Fleabane Jack-fruit tree

Damanakah

Davanah

Nagadoni

Makkippoovu

Makkippu

Manjapatre

Dav

Panasah

Kathal

Kanthal

Plavu

Palavu

Halasu

Pan

Wild jack

Lakucah

Aanjili

Anjali

Hebbalasu

Asparagus

Satavari

Satavari

Satavari

Ammaikodi

Aheuballi

Pilli

Cucumber tree

Brihaddala

Kamaranga Kamarak

Vilimbi

Tamarattai

Kamarakshi

Kam

Carambola, Star fruit, Chinese gooseberry Margosa tree Indian lilac Mistletoe Berrythorn Thyme-leaved gratiola Castor oil plant

Karmarangha Kamaranga Kamarak

Aarampuli

Tamarattai

kamarakshi

Kam

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Azima tetracantha Lam. Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell Baliospermum solanifolium (J. Burm.) Suresh Thorny bamboo Bambusa bambos Spiny bamboo Druce Barleria mysorensis

Nimbah

Nim

Aaryaveppu

Vembu

Bervu

Vep

Kundali

Ichanka Mulsanga Nirpirami

Bileevuppi

Tell

Nirbrahmi

Sam

Danti

Kantagarkim Trikantagati Essanku ai Barami Boihimsak Brahmi Jalnim Danti Danti Nagadandi

Nakatanti

Danti

Nela

Vamsah

Kantabams

Mungil

Bidiau

Pen

Camel’s foot Bauhinia purpurea tree Linn. Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Bauhinia tomentosa St.Thomas tree

Vanaraja

Velutha mandaram Mandaram, Malayathi Kanjanam, Kattathi Chuvanna mandaram

Mandari

Kempukanjivala

Kan

Manthari Arikka Kanjani

Vana samtige

Pac

Kadatti

Ada

Sigappu mandari Ullippe

Dae kan

Mukkutti, Nilamthengu

tintanali

Artemisia vulgaris Linn. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Averrhoa bilimbi Linn. Averrhoa carambola Linn.

Bauhinia variegata Linn.

Brahmi

Nim

Kutuasi

Mula Chulli

Lalkachna

Sveta Kachnal kanchan Aswamantaka Kachnar

Mountain ebony Kancanarah

Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.) DC. Blepharis boerhaavifolia Blepharistemma corymbosa Boerhaavia diffusa Hogweed Pigweed Linn. Bombax ceiba Linn. Red silk cotton tree Brassica campestris Swedish turnip, White mustard Linn.

Shatamuli

Kancanar

Jhullapuspah Lajjalu

Rakta kanchan Banraj Kanchan Rakta kanchan Jhalai

Murikoottipacha

Punarnava Salmali

Neerkuruntha, Arumarachedi Gadahpurna Gandhapurn Thazhuthama a Semal Rokto simul Mullilavu

Katasarshapa Kalisarson

204

Kalisarsan

Velutha kaduku

Saatarani

Sanadike komma Atik

Mullilavu

Boonagadamara

Salm

Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss. Brassica oleracea Linn. var. botrytis Linn. Breynia patens Benth. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Bridelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. Bryonia sp.

Indian mustard, Sarsapah Red mustard Rajika

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Caesalpinia bonduc (Linn.) Roxb. Caesalpinia sappan Linn. Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Hook. f. Callicarpa tomentosa (Linn.) Murray Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br. Calycopteris floribunda Lam.

Flame of the forest Fever nut Bonduc nut Brazil wood

Palasah

Red gram Pigeon pea

Cananga odorata Hook. f. & Thom. Capparis sepiaria Linn. Capparis zeylanica Linn. Capsicum annum

Ylang-ylang

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. Careya arborea Roxb.

Heart’s pea Indravalli Balloon vine Wild guava Katabhi Slow match tree

Cassia occidentalis Linn. Cassia sophera Linn. Casuarina equisetifolia Linn. Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don Catunaregam nutans (DC.) Tiruv. Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Gagnep. Ceiba pentata (Linn.) Gaertn. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban

Kaduku

Katugu

Sasave

Ara

Cauliflower Bahupraja

Kalamahom ad

Punarmuringa

Dev

Mulluvenga Cherupanichi Bahupatra

Gargunaru

Mala

Kanjikkottam

Ling

Dhak Palas Plasu Palas Latakaranjah Kantikaranja Natakaranja Kazhanchi

Parasa

Muttuga

Pala

Kalicikkai

Galiga

Gac

Patrangah

Patamg

Bakam

Patungam

Patranga

Puta

Tuvari

Tuvari Dhal

Arhar

Tuvarai

Karigudu

Kan

Chappangam, Sappangam Thuvara Cheruchooral, Kattuchooral

Gigantic swallow Arkah wort Susavi

Kakadoni

Red chilly

Massandari

Kattuthekku

Vettilaippattai

Ardri

Madar

Akanda

Erikku

Erukku

Ekka

Man

Kokkarai

Pullanni

Minnarkoti

Kuppasa

Adv

Jal kanthari

Pachachempaka Manoranjitham m Kakkathondi Karunjarai

Apoorva sakpaka Apo sam Kadukattari Nall

Karthotti

Tondai

Mullukattari

Ado

Mulaku

Milagay

Mensinakai

Mira

Mudukkottan

Agni-balli

Nall

Kumbi Ayma

Kavalu mara

Gad Didi

Parangimarai

Bop

Raktamarciah Lalmirca

Kaliakara

Kapalphoti Kumbi

Lalmorich

Lataphatkari Uzhinja, Valliuzhinja Kamber Pezhu

Erandakarkati Pappita

Kappa/Kappalam Pappali

Kala-azim Jeera

Elephant’s palm Sritalah Fish tail palm

Nayibettu

Bestra

Gitoranj

Bulbous Carum bulbocastanum Koch caraway Caraway Carum carvi Linn.

Cascabela thevetia (Linn.) Lippold Cassia fistula Linn.

Raisarisha

Cauliflower

Carica papaya Linn. Papaya

Caryota urens Linn.

Rayi

Jira

Mari ka jat

Seema jeerakam Shema-sheragam

Sim

Carum

Shimai- jeerakam

Shim

Choondappana

Kuntalpanai

Bagani

Jilug

Konnai

Kakkaemara

Kala

Manja arali Indian laburnum Kitamalah Golden shower

Amaltas

Sonali

Negro coffee Stinking weed Senna sophera

Kasamardah

Kasaumdi

Kalkashunda Ponnaveeram

Ponnavirai

Doddatagassa

Kas

Kasamarda

Kasunda

Kalkashunda Ponnanthakara

Pon-navarai

Kasamardah

Kon

Janglisaru

Jau

Savukku

Chabaku

Cha

Beef wood Periwinkle

Kanikkonna

Kattadi

Nityakalyani

Sudabahar

Ushamalari, Sudukattumallikai Nityamallige Savakkottappach a Kara

Billa

Godhapadi

Goalilata

Tripadi

Kattupirandai

Gum

Saphed Shwet simul simal Brahmaman Tholkhuri duki

Panjimaram, Seemappoola Kudangal, Kudakan, Muthil

Pancu Ilavum Vallarai

White silk cotton Sweta salmali tree Indian Mandukaparni pennywort

205

Apurani

Tell

Kadu

Bra

Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. Cicca acida (Linn.) Merr. Cinnamomum camphora Nees & Eberm. Cinnamomum verum Presl Cissampelos pareira Linn. Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm. f. Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook. f. Clematis triloba Heyne ex Roth Cleome gynandra Linn. Cleome viscosa Linn. Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f. Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. Clitoria ternatea Linn.

Sweet pig weed

Kattayamodakam

Chikrassy

Chanana

Country gooseberry Camphor tree

Lavaliphala

Harfarauri

Karpurah

Kapur

Cinnamon

Darusita

Darucini

Velvet leaf

Ambastha

Akanadi

Adament creeper Country lime

Aszthisanhara Hadjora

Kodu- vama

Chikrassi

Chuvanna akil

Chunda-kadalai

Dallmaris

San

Hariphal

Arinelli

Arinelli

Aranelli

Rat

Karppooram

Indu Karpooram

Karpoora

Kar

Dalchini

Karuva

Akanadi

Malathangi

Ilavarngam Karuwa Appatta kodi

Padavali

Perandai

Manjora-valli

Elummicchchai

Nimbae

Nim

Rough lemon

Changalamparanda Kagzi-nimbu Kagzi-nimbu Vadukappulinarakam Maha- nimbu Bara-nimbu Bara-nebu Cherunarakam

Pata Adiv Vajr

Forbidden fruit

Madhukarkati Chakotra

Mahanimbu Bablumas

Pambalimasu

Chakotre

Pam

Indrayava

Karlajuri

Nilappalai

Bodadaraga

Vod

Garari

Harjora

Bowstring hemp Laghuparnika Murhari

Odaku

Sap

Periya elumichai

Perumkurumba

Bija

Morhari

Ajagandha

Hulhul

Ansarisha

Aadunarivelam

Nagvelai

Wild mustard

Varada

Hurhur

Hulhuria

Naykadugu

Naadusaive

Kus

Clerodendrum

Vatagni

Urani

Kattukaduku, Ariyavila Peruvelum

Thazhuthazhi

Taggi

Tak

Beetle killer

Angaravalli

Bharang

Bomanhati

Cheruthekku

Chirutekku

Gantubaranji

Che

Clerodendrum

Bhantaka

Bhant

Bhant

Clitoria

Aparajita

Aparajit

Aparajit

Periyilam, Perugilai Peruvelam Sankhupushpam Kannikkotti

Girikarniballi

Dint

Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels. Cochlospermum religiosum (Linn.) Alst. Cocos nucifera Linn.` Coffea arabica Linn.

Ivy gourd

Bimbika

Kanturi

Telkucha

Koval

Tonde-kayee

Don

Kovai-kodi

Vam

Gur

Broom creeper P[atalugaruda Patalagarudi Huyer Ink berry h Yellow flowered Girisalmalika Galgal cotton tree

Pathalagarudakk Kattukkoti odi Seemappanji Konjillam

Dagadiballi

Das

Arasina

Kan

Coconut tree

Narikela

Nariyal

Narikel

Thengu

Tenkaimaram

Tengu

Ten

Arabian coffee

Kawa

Kafi

Kappi

Kaapi

Kafi

Kafi

Coffea robusta

Robusta coffee

Kawa

Kafi

Kappi

Kaapi

Kafi

Kafi

Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. Coldenia procumbens Linn. Coleus amboinicus Lour. Coleus zeylanicus (Benth.) Cramer Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott Commiphora caudata (Wt. & Arn.) Engl. Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Stocks Connarus monocarpus Linn. Coriandrum sativum Linn. Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr.

Job’s tears

Gavendhukah Gurusamkru Gurgur

Kakkappalunku

Kunthumani

Kolti-baeja

Tripakshee

Cherupulladi

Seruppadai

Panikkoorkka

karpuravalli

Karpurahalli

Sug

Chaembu

Kachchi

Kala

Gukkalu

Guggul

Guk

Kottamalli

Kothambari

Kott

Maramancal

Maramanjali

Man

Indian borage Karpuravalli Country borage

Tripungki Pathurchur

Paterchur

Ham

Iruveli Taro Coco yam

Alupam

Kaccalu

Kachu

Chembu Kilippanjimaram

Indian bdellium

Gugulu

Gugul

Guggul

Gulgulu Kurial

Coriander

Dhanyakam

Dhanigam

Dhane

Tree turmeric

Daruharida

Jhar-I-haldi

Haldi gachch Maramanjal

206

Malli

Cosmostigma racemosa Wt. Costus Costus speciosus (Koen.) Sm. Tree leaved Crataeva religiosa caper Hook. f. & Thom. Cressa cretica Linn. Crossandra infundibuliformis Crotalaria juncea Linn. Croton tiglium Linn. Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schult. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Curcuma amada Roxb. Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curcuma longa Linn. Cyathula prostrata (Linn.) Bl. Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thom. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Cymbopogon flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. Cymbopogon martinii var. motia Roxb. Cymbopogon martinii var. sofia Cymbopogon nardus (Linn.) Rendle Cymbopogon nardus var. confertiflorus x C. jawarancusa Cymbopogon pendulus Wats. Cymbopogon winterianus Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. Cyperus rotundus Linn Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Datura metel Linn. Delonix regia (Boj.) Rafin. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees Desmodium gangeticum DC. Desmodium gyrans DC. Desmodium pulchellum Backer Desmodium triflorum (Linn.) DC. Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

Pushkara

Kust

Kura

Vattolam, Vaduvalli Channakuva

Gharahuroo

Varunah

Barna

Barun

Neermathalam

Narvala

Rudanti

Rudravanti

Rudravanti

Azhukanni

Vuppu mari kazhantu Pavillakurinja

Abbolige

Gob

Sanappu

Sanabu

Jan

Nela

Kostam

Changakosta

Kas

Bilpatri

Uru

Upp

Sun hemp

Sanabu

Sanabu

Sanpat

Kanakambaram, Padathikongini Kilukki

Purging croton

Jepulah

Jamalgota

Jaypul

Neervalam

Nervalam

Japala

Kilippalvalli

Paalkodi

Adavi palchedi

Talamuli

Nilappana

Nilapanai

Neladali

Nela

Ambahaldi

Mam

Karnata Musali

Kalimusali

Mango ginger

Amradrakam Amahaldi

Amada

Mangainchi

Mankayinci

Wild arrow root

Tavakshira

Tikhur

Kua

Wild turmeric

Aranyaharidra Jangli haldi

Ban haland

Vellakkuva, Kattumanjal Kasthurimanjal

Kasturimanjal

Kadarasina

Ada

Turmeric

Haridra

Haldi

Manjal

Mancal

Anasina

Pas

Small prickly chaff flower plant Pata root

Raktapamarg Lal circita ah

Cherukadaladi

Cirukatalati

Patha

Path

Padakkizhangu, Padathali

Patakilanka

West Indian lemon grass East Indian Lemongrass

Bhustarah

Gandhatran Gandhabena Injippullu

Majjigehallu

Nim

Palmarosa, Rosha grass

Dhyamakah

Tikhur

Haldi

Injippullu

Palmarosa, Gingergrass Ceylon citronella Guchcha grass Jamrosa

Gandhabei

Palmarosa

Munkilppul

Palmarosa Gaijini

Kamakher

Ceylon citronella

Kamachi pillu

Kam

Jamrosa

Jammu Lemongrass Java citronella Dhub grass Barmuda grass Nut grass

Vasanapullu

Ara

Jammu inchippullu Java citronella Niladurva

Durba

Musta

East Indian rose Shishapa wood Datura Dhustura

Dub

Karuka

Arukampillu

Hariali

Har

Nagarmotha Motha

Muthanga

Koral

Tungegadde

Tun

Shisham

Eetti, Veetti

Itti

Ibadi

Chit

Kaladhutara Dhatura

Neela ummam

Vellum mattai

Dattura

Tell

Kalmoongil

Bidiru

Chit

Pulladi

Murelehonne

Gut

Jenukkadi

Sar

Sitsal

Gulmohar Male bamboo

Vansha

Banskaban

karael

Gulmohar, Alasippumaram Kallanmula

Desmodium

Salaparni

Salparni

Salapani

Orila

Jatsalpan

Garh tapi

Thozhukanni, Ramanamachedi Kattumuthira

Kudaliga

Kodalia

Nilamparanda

Siruppullai

Mun

Sacrificial grass Darbah

Davoli

Darbha

Balidarbha

Darbhaibhul

Dab

Potato yam

Ratalu

Banalu

Kachil, Pannikizhangu

Kodi kilangu

Tripadi

207

Heggenasaru

Che dam

Dioscorea floribunda Medicinal yam

Marunnukachil

Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Dolichos biflorus Backer Dregea volubilis (Linn. f.) Hook. f. Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Merr. Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. Elephantopus scaber Linn. Elettaria cardamomum Maton Embelia ribes Burm. f. Emilia sonchifolia DC. Ensete superbum

Persimmon

Dirghapatraka Abnus

Kend

Ebony

Karum dumbi

Abanasi

Man

Horse gram

Kulattha

Kulatti

Kirti kalai

Muthira

Kollu

Hurali

Ulav

Hemajivanti

Nakchikkni

Titakunga

Velipparuthi

Kodippalai

Dugdhike

Dud

Udajati

Udajati

Odiyamadantha

Nilambari

Kappukarni

Chik

Tekarajuah

Bhamgra

Kesraj

Kayyantukara

Kaddigagarugu

Prickly leaved elephant’s foot Cardamom

Hastipadi

Gobhi

Gajilata

Kayyonni, Kayyunni Aanachuvadi

Anashovadi

Nayee nalige

Gun m Hus

Ela

Elaci

Chotti elaci

Elam

Elam

Yelakkai

Yela

Embelia

Vidangah

Vagvidang

Biranga

Wizhal

Vayu-vilamga

Vayuvilanga

Vell

Sasarutih

Hirankhun

Sudhimudi

Muyalcheviyan

Muyalccevi

Entada pursaetha DC. Eryngium foetidum Linn. Erythrina variegata Linn. Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.

Elephant creeper African coriander Indian coral tree Paribhadrah

Doddakampi

Gilla

Blue fox tail Nail dye Trailing eclipta

Kalluvazha

Dadap pamkara

Malamanjadi, Kakkavalli Africanmalli

Palitamadar Murikku

Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus globulus Blue gum tree Labill. Ayapana tea Eupatorium triplinerve Vahl Euphorbia hirta Linn. Australian asthma weed

Chillu

Kalyana murukku Harivana

Yukkali Nilanirgasa

Yukeliptas

Ayaparnah

Ayaparna

Ayapani

Nagarjun

Lal-dudhi

Patra-snuhi Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. Dugdhika Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. Petroleum plant Trikantaka Euphorbia tirucalli Milk bush Linn. Euphorbia tirucalli Linn. Euphorbia trigona Haw. Evolvulus alsinoides (Linn.) Linn. Excoecaria agallocha Linn. Ficus benghalensis Linn. Ficus exasperata Vahl Ficus heterophylla Linn. f. Ficus microcarpa Linn. f. Ficus racemosa Linn. Ficus religiosa Linn.

Barabi chian Gila gach

Yukkali

Bad

Tala Karpoora maram Taila

Aya

Barokherni

Aiyappana, Ayappani Mrithasanjeevani Nilappala Amampatihaiarasi Akkigida

Sij

Sij

Ilakkalli

Naga kalli

Aku

Dudhiya

Dudiya

Nilappala

Sittrapaladi

Sehund

Lankasy

Thirukkalli Thirukkalli

Thirukkali

Katathuhar

Nan

Red

Mundukalli

Kallimullu

Che

Katt

Vishnukranthi

Vishnukrantamu

Vishnukranti

Vish

Blinding tree

Visnukrantha Syamakrant ha Agaru Gangwa Gangwa

Komatti

Kampetti

Tilla

Thil

Banyan tree

Nyagrodhah

Peral

Alamaram

Ala

Ped

Bhuii-damar Vallitherakam

Kodi athi

Adavibende

Bar

Bargad

Bot

Therakam Trayamana Plaksah

Kamarup

Kamrup

Itthi

Kallicci

Itti

Plak

Cluster fig

Udumbarah

Gular umar

Atthi

Atti

Atti

Uda

Peepal tree Sacred fig

Pippalah Asvatam

Pippal

Jagga dumur Asvatha

Arayal

Arasu

Aswatha

Rav

Kancu

Binja

Aghori

Sattaikala

Nakkeharagu

Puti

Paniyala

Paniyala

Neernelli, Vayyinkarai Thaleesapathram Kudampuli, Kodukappuli Kudappuli Karinkudungal

Hulumanike

Kur

Punarpuli

Vrks

Governor’s plum Aghori Flacourtia indica Merr. Vikankatha Flacourtia jangomas Puneala plum (Lour.) Raeusch. Gamboge Vrksamlah Garcinia gummigutta (Linn.) Robs. Geophila reniformis

Bilatti-amli

Aanachoriyanam

Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis

208

Gloriosa superba Linn. Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. Gmelina arborea Roxb. Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. Hedyotis corymbosa (Linn.) Lam. Helicteres isora Linn. Heliotropium indicum Linn. Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. Hibiscus rosasinensis Linn. Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.Ham.) Don Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Holostemma adakodien Schult. Homonoia riparia Lour. Hugonia mystax Linn. Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn. f.) Muell. Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst) Sleum. Hygrophila schulli (Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R. Br. Indigofera tinctoria Linn. Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn. Ixora coccinea Linn.

Glory lily

Visalya

Bisha

Menthonni

Akkini chilam

Nangulika

Ada

Asvasakothah Girgiti

Ashshoura

Kuttippanal

Kattukonci

Kasarkana

Gon

Liquorice

Yastimadhu

Jatimadh

Yastomadhu Irattimadhuram

Athimadhuram

Athimadhura

Yas

Coomb teak

Gumbhari

Gamari

Gomari

Kummuda

Gum

Merasimgi

Merasingi

Kumizhu, Kumbil Uri Gumadi Chakkarakkolli Sakkarakolli

Kadhasige

Pod

Parpadakappullu Parpatagam

Parpatahullu

Ver

Ada

Periploca of the Madhunasini woods Parpatah

Kalihari

East Indian screw tree Indian turnsole

Avarttani

Daman pappar Marodphali

Vrscikali

Siriyari

Hatisura

Thekkada

Telkedukkai

Celubaladagidha Kod

Indian sarasaparilla Shoe-flower plant Roselle

Sariba Anantamul Ondrapuspi

Anantamul

Anantamul

Nannari

Namadabathi

Sug

Jasum

Joba

Naruneendi, Nannari Chemparathi

Cemparutti

Dasavala

Man

Patwa

Lal mista

Mathippuli

Pulicha keera

Yer

Yellow mallow

Bala

Bopla

Bopla

Pooparuthi

Sivappu kasmakkai Attu paruthi

Tellichery bark

Kalinga

Kurci kuda

kurchi

Kudakappala

Kutasapalai

Kodgasana Karche

Cheru, Charu

Karunjari

Holigar Tapasigida

Atmora

Idampiri-valampiri Valampiri

Kempukaveri

Etta

Kod

Indian elm

Cirabilvah

Cibil

Aavil, Njettavil

Avali Kanji

Holostemma

Jivanti

Chirvel

Adapathian

Palaikkirai

Jalavetasah

Jalbent

Aattuvanchi, Kallurvanchi Mothirakkanni

Kattuarali

Sannapasanabela Sirid

Mothirakkanni

Mrema

Climbing flax

Maroti tree

Kamsamarah Amburuha

Rattan-purus Nun-boro

Orilathamara

Purusharatnam

Tuvarakah

Calmogaru

Marotti

Maravattai

Tap

Pala

Kak

Nila

Vayalchulli Black creeper

Ulpalasariba

Kalidudhi

Shyamalata Palvalli

Udarkkoti

Kappunabadaber Nall u

Indian indigo

Nilika

Nil

Nil

Averi

Nili

Avir

Giant potato

Kairividari

Bhilaykand

Neelamari, Neelichedi Bhumikumar Palmuthukku a Pulichuvadi

Palmudamagi

Nadakumbala

Nela

Rangam

Rajana

Thechi, Chethi

Cetti

Kiskara

Man

Jati

Jati

Pichakam, Pichi

Malligae

Mal

Moghra

Moghri

Kudamulla

Pichi Kotimalligae Kundumallige

Dundumallige

Mal

Katalamanakku

Belioudalu

Aav

Adalai

Karithrukuharalu

Qun

Kattuamanaku

Hattielai karalu

Nep

Tiger’s foot Flame of the Paranti woods Spanish jasmine Jati

Jasminum grandiflorum Linn. Jasminum sambac Arabian jasmine Mallika Ait. Purging nut Dravanti Jatropha curcas Linn. Nikumbu Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. Tua-tua Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. Justicia betonica

Jungli erand Pahari erand Kadalavanakku, Kattavanakku Undarbilyu Lalbheranda Kannatti Chuvannakadalavanakku Paduthamara

Pulichovadi

Pur

Justicia gendarussa Linn. f. Justicia wynadensis

Vatagni

Nilanairgund Jagatmadari Vathamkolli i Kurinji

Vataikkoti

Karinekki

Add

Kaempferia galanga

Karcurah

Candramula chandumula Kacholam,

Kaccolam

Kacora

Can

209

Kachooram

Linn. Kaempferia rotunda Indian crocus Linn. Lagenaria siceraria Bottle gourd Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Moldenke Lawsonia inermis Linn. Leea indica Merr.

Bhucampaka Abhuichamp Bhuichampa Chengazhineerh a kizhangu Katutumbi Titalauki Kodalau Churakka

Nerppicin

Nelasampige

Kon

Sorakkai

Kadusore

Sor

Wild sage

Caturangi

Caturang

Arippu

Arisimalar

Kadugulabi

Puli

Henna

Medhini

Mehanti

Mylanchi

Marutani

Madurangi

Gor

Chatri

Kurkurjihava Kurkurjihava Manippiranda

Ottanali

Gadhapatri

Ank

Dronapuspi

Chota halkusa Karpur

Thumba

Tumbai

Tumbe

Tum

Ambuja

Chota lalkusa Kuttra

Kapitthah

Katbel

Kathbel

Vilarmaram

Vilankaymaram

Bela

Vela

Vashira

Bhuikora

Neerthippali

Podutalaei

Thumbe Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spr. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce Limonia acidissima Elephant apple Linn. Lippia nodiflora Mich. Litchi chinensis Sonner. Lobelia nicotianifolia Wild tobacco Roth ex Roem. & Schult. Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Maesa indica Wall. Mangifera indica Linn. Maranta arundinacea Linn. Melia azedarach Linn. Mentha arvensis Linn. Mesua nagassarium (Burm. f.) Kosterm. Michelia champaca Linn. Mimosa pudica Linn.

Manganari

Bok

Leechi

Leechi

Litchi

Ilichi

Nala

Nala

Kattupukayila

Upperichedi

Kandele

Ada

Vattakkanni

Upalige

Kon

Ramjanu

Kattuvizhal

Vamari

Tanipela

Cuckoo’s joy

Amrah

Amb

Am

Mavu

Mamaram

Mavu

Mam

Arrow root

Tavaksri

Tikhor

Ararut

Kochikuva, Kuva Kuvai

Kavihettu

Pala

Pride of India

Mahanimbah Mahanimb

Ghoranim

Malaveppu

Malaivempu

Turakabevu

Kon

Mint

Pudina

Podina

Pudina

Putina

Chetamarugu

Pud

Mesua

Nagapuspam Nagakesar

Nagesar

Nagappu

Nagasampige

Nag

Sempakam

Sampige

Cha

Thottalvadi

Nacikegidi

Man

Pudina

Golden champa Champakah

Champaka

Champaka

Sensitive plant

Lajjalu

Lajjavanti

Lajak

Nagakesaram, Churuli Chempakam, Champaka Thottavadi

Bakulah

Bakul

Bakul

Elenji

Ilanci

Ragademara

Pog

Krishnakeli

Gulabbas

Krishnakeli

Anthimalari

Pattarasu

Chandra mallige

Cha

Phanija

Jima

Jima

Kaippujeerakam

Kachantari

Parpataka

Cha

Kudalchurukki

Nuna

Poppili

Shir

West Indian Mimusops elengi Medlar Linn. Mirabilis jalapa Linn. Four O’ clock plant Mollugo oppositifolia Bitter cumin Linn. Morinda umbellata Linn. Drum-stick tree Moringa oleifera Lam. Morus acedosa Griff. Mucuna pruriens (Linn.) DC. Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roemer Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. Musa paradisiaca Linn. var. sapientum Kuntze Mussaenda frondosa Linn. Myristica fragrans Houtt. Naregamia alata Wt. & Arn. Nerium oleander Linn. Nervilia aragoana Gaud. Nyctanthes arbor-

Devanala

Mehandi

Pitadaru Sigruh

Mungana

Sajna

Muriga, Moringa

Murunkai

Murunga

Mun

Shalmali

Tut

Tut

Kambali

Brahmadaru

Puti

Atmagupta

Gonca

Alkushi

Kambilimaram, Yusham Naikurana

Punaikkali

Nasuganni

Pilli

Tirkoskai

Agumaki

Bilari

Mukkapperam

Musumusukkai

Curry leaf

Kalasakh

Mithipam

Barsunga

Kariveppu

Kariveppalai

Kari baeva

Kar

Adam’s fig

Kadali

Kela

Kela

Vazha, kadalivazha

Kadalivalai

Balehannu

Kad

White lady

Sriparnah

Bedina

Nag-balli

Vellila

Vellai-ilai

Bello-tigida

Nag

Nutmeg tree

Jati

Jayphal

Jaiphal

Jathi

Jatimaram

Jajikal

Jajik

Nilanarakam

Nilanaragam

Nelaringa

Pag

Arali

Sivappu arali

Kanagilu

Gan

Orilathamara

Orilattamarai

Pavizhamulla

Pavillamallige

Parijata

Pag

Cowhage

Goanese Triparnika ipecacuanh Indian oleander Karavirah Padmacarini Night jasmine

Parijatah

Tinparni Karavira

Karabi

Sthalapadm a Harsinghar Harsinghar

210

Pott

tristis Linn. Nymphaea rubra Roxb. Ochrocarpus longifolius Ocimum americanum Linn. Ocimum basilicum Linn. Ocimum gratissimum Linn. Ocimum gratissimum Linn. var. clocimum Ocimum tenuiflorum Linn. Operculina turpethum (Linn.) S. Manso Opuntia dillenii (KerGawler) Haworth Oroxylum indicum (Linn.) Vent. Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth. Oxalis corniculata Linn. Pavetta indica Linn.

Indian red water Aruna kamala Chhota lily kamal Indian laurel Punnag Nagkesar

Rakta kamal Velutha ambal

Allittamarai

Bilitavarai

Allit

Nagkesar

Punna

Surabunnai

Sarungi

Sur

Hoary basil

Aranyatulasi

Vantulasi

Kalatulasi

Katturamathulasi Nayttulaci

Nayitulasi

Kup

Sweet basil

Barbari

Babauitulasi Babauitulasi Ramathulasi

Tirunitturu

Kamakasturi

Bhu

Shrubby basil

Vridha tulasi

Ram tulasi

Ram tulasi

Karpoorathulasi, Kattuthrithavu Clocimum

Elumicha tulasi

Elumicha tulasi

Ram

Sacred basil

Surasah

Poojatulasi

Tulsi

Krishnathulasi

Karuttutulasi

Karitulasi

Tula

Indian jalap

Trivirt

Tarbut

Dudhkalami Thrikolpakkonna

Kumbham

Sigade

Teg

Prickly pear

Vidara

Nagphana

Nagphana

Nagadali

Dabbugalli

Nag

Indian trumphrt tree Java tea

Syonakah

Sonapatha

Sona

Palayudaycci

Tattuna

Dun

Chariot tree

Tinisah

Narivengai

Karimutalae

Tell

Indian sorrel

Cangeri

Amrulsak

Amrul

Pavatta

Pavattai

Pavetae

Pap

Phoenix dactylifera Linn. Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Physalis minima Linn. Pimenta racemosa J. W. Moore Pinus roxburghii Sargent Piper betle Linn.

Date palm

Kharjurah

Khajur

Khajur

Eenthappana

Periccamkay

Kajjuri

karj

Chitteenthal

Siruintu

Indu

Cinn

Piper chaba Hunter

Clocimum

Palakakkalli, Nagathali Palakappayyani Poochameesa

Tinnas

Tinis

Inda

Thodukara Puliyaral

Small wind date Parusakah palm Tamalaki

Palavat Jaramala

Bhui amla

Keezharnelli

Kilanelli

Kirunelli

Nela

Indian gooseberry Sunberry

Amlaka

Amla

Amlaki

Nelli

Neli

Amalaka

Ama

Mrdukuncika

Bandhapariy Bandhapariy Njottanjodiyan a a Cheenamulaku

Tottakali

Guddahannu

Kup

Kattukaruva

Gandamanasu

Bayberry Chirpine

Saralah

Sarala

saralagacah Charalam

Caraladevadaru

Sarala

Sar

Betel pepper

Tambulavalli

Pan

Pan

Vettila

Ilaikkodi

Viliyadaballi

Alag

Bengal pepper

Chavika

Chab

Choi

Benglathippali

Chavya

Sev

Piper longum Linn.

Long pepper

Pippali

Piplamul

Piplamul

Thippali

Thippili

Thippali

Pipp

Piper nigrum Linn.

Black pepper

Maricam

Kalimirc

Kalimirch

Kurumulaku

Milagu

Olli manasu

Miri

Kumbhika

Jalkumbhi

Takapana

Kodappayal

Ayastamarai

Antharangagae

Aka

Lalchita

Chethikkoduveli

Cittramulam

Kempucitramala

Yer

Chitarak

Vellakkoduveli

Sittaragam

Vahini

Chit

Poomaram

Kallimandarai

Kadusampige

Ada

Pistia stratiotes Linn. Water letuce Plumbago indica Linn. Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Plumeria rubra Linn.

Red flowered leadwort White flowered leadwort Pogodo tree

Pogostemon patchouli Hook. f. Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. Polygonum chinense Linn. Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre Portulaca oleracea Linn. Pothos scandens Linn. Premna integrifolia Linn. Premna latifolia Roxb.

Chitraka

Chitarak

Patchouli

Ksiracampak Golenci a Pacholi

Pachapat

Pachila

Kadir pachai

Patchetene

Mast tree

Ulkatah

Debdari

Aranamaram

Asogu

Assoti

Aso

Poovallikodi

Bilichinee Ganigalu Puggam

Hongae

Kan

Bod

Debdari Ameta

Indian beech

Karanj

Indian parselane Brihalloni

Headache tree Dusky fire brand mark

Karanja

Karanja

Ungu/ Pongu

Baralunia

Baraloniya

Cheriyagolicheera Karikkirai

Dudagorai

Anaparuga

Adkebiluballi

Ganiari

Aanapparuva, Paruvakkodi Munja

Mannui

Takkila

Gohara

Nappa

Pacha mullai

Agnimanthah Arni Bakar

211

Pad

Ped

Prunus amygdalus Batsch Prunus cerasoides D. Don Pseudarthria viscida (Linn.) Wt. & Arn. Psidium guajava Linn. Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. Punica granatum Linn. Raphanus sativus Linn. Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz. Rhaphidophora pertusa Schott Rhinacanthus nastus (Linn.) Kurz. Ricinus communis Linn. Rotula aqautica Lour. Rubia cordifolia Linn.

Almond tree

Badama

Badam

Badam

Badham

Vadumai

Budami

Bad

Bird cherry

Padmakah

Patmakath

Padmak

Pathimukham

Patumugam

Padmaka

Pad

Moovila

Neermalli

Salaparni

Muy

Guava tree

Perukah

Amrud

Peyara

Pera

Koyya

Keli

Jam

Babchi

Vakucai

Bakuci

Bavachi

Karkolari

Karpogam

Somaraji

Bav

Indian kino tree

Asanah

Bijasal

Pitsal

Venga

Vengai

Hannemara

Bed

Red sandal wood Pomegranate

Raktachanda Raktachand Raktachand Rakthachandana Sivappu nah ana ana m chandanam Dadimah Dhalim Dalim Mathalam Madalam

Raktachandanam Rak Dalimbe

Dad

Radish

Mulika

Serpent wood

Mullanki

Mullanki

Mulangi

Mul

Sarpagandha Chandrabha Chandra ga

Sarpagandhi, Amalpori

Chivan Amalpodi

Sutranbli

Pata

Elithandan

Anaittippali

Snake jasmine

Sphotyabhuja ngam Yuthikaparni Palakjuhi

Juipana

Nagamulla

Nagamalli

Nagamalli

Nag

Castor

Erundah

Bherenda

Aavanakku

Amanakku

Maralu

Eru

Kallurvanchi

Seppuniringi

Indian madder

Pasanabheda h Manjistha Mamjith

Manjistha

Manchatti

Manjitti

Manjusta

Tam

Ruta graveolens Linn. Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Saccharum spontaneum Linn. Salacia reticulata Wt. Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult.

Garden rue

Gucchapatra

Ermul

Arootha

Aruvadam

Sadabu

Sad

Devil sugarcane Munjah

Pismaram Sudab Ramsar

Teng

Amadarbha

Munji

Munji

Ada

Thatch grass

Kas

Kagara

Kusadarbha

Pekkarimpu

Darbhe

Kak

Ekanayakam

Ponkoranti

Ekanayakam

Anu

Indian bow string hemp

Murva

Murva

Murba

Muramachi

Marul

Maruga

Sag

Santalum album Linn. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt. Saussurea lappa C. B. Clarke Scaevola taccada

Sandal tree

Chandanah

Santal

Chandan

Chandanam

Chandanam

Bavanna

Cha

Ashoka

Asoka

Asoka

Ashoka

Asokam

Asogam

Asokada

Ash

Moon plant

Somavalli

Somlata

Som-lata

Somalatha

Somam

Somlata

Kon

Costus

Kustah

Kuth

Kottam

Kostam

Kostha

Kus

Bhadraksham

Vellamuttagam

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken Sesbania grandiflora (Linn.) Poiret Sida acuta Burm. f.

Lac tree, Ceylon oak Swamp pea

Kasah

Muli

Mula

Erand

Vairi

Fan flower

Eru

Pas

Mukulakah

Kasum

Kusum

Poovam

Pumarata

Sagade

Pos

Agastayah

Hathya

Bak

Agathi

Attikkirai

Agasi

Ave

Horn bean leaved sida Sida cordifolia Linn. Bala

Bala

Bariara

Bonmethi

Kurunthotti

Malaitangi

Vishakkadi

Visa

Brela

Bariar

Brela

Kattooram

Nilatutti

Kadira-baeru

Chir

Sida rhombifolia Linn. ssp. retusa (Linn.) Borss. Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum khasianum C. B. Clarke Solanum melongena Linn. var. incanum (Linn.) Prain Solanum surattense Burm. F. Solanum torvum Swartz

Bala

Jamglimethi Pitabala

Ceruparuva

Ciru

Aanakkurunthotti Kuruntotti Manithakkali Chunda

Yellow berried nightshade West Indian Turkey berry

Brihati

Baigan

Cheruvazhuthina

Kantakari

Remgani

Kantakarichunda Kantakattiri

Nelagulli

Call

Kattuchunda

Kadu sunde

Kun

Tit-baigan

212

Tit-baigan

Sundai-kai

Solanum violaceum Ortega Sphaeranthus africanus Linn. East Indian Sphaeranthus globe thistle indicus Linn. Spilanthes acmella var. olracea C. B. Clarke Spilanthes calva DC. Paracress Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz. Stereospermum suaveolens DC. Strychnos nuxvomica Linn. Strychnos potatorum Linn. f. Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore Syzygium aromaticum (Linn.) Merr. Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels Syzygium jambos (Linn.) Alst. Syzygium zeylanicum DC. Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) Roem. & Schult. Tamarindus indica Linn. Tectona grandis Linn. f. Tephrosia purpurea Pers. Terminalia arjuna Wt. & Arn. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia catappa Linn. Terminalia chebula Retz. Terminalia paniculata Roth Terminalia tomentosa Wt. & Arn. Thespesia populnea (Linn.) Sol. ex Corr. Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.) Miers

Hog plum

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. & Thom. Tinospora malabarica (Lam.) Miers Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) Sprague Tragia involucrata Linn. Tribulus terrestris Linn. Trichopus zeylanicus

Tinospora

Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn. Tridax procumbens

Snake gourd

Putharichunda

Mundi

Mundi

Murmuria

Velutha adakkamanian Adakkamanian

Rashiera

Kuppamanjal

Pipulka

Visnukkarantai

Akkikaruka

Gorakmundi

Bod

Sannavanamugli Mor

Amratakah

Amra

Ambra

Ambazham

Ampalam

Ambatemarra

Ada

Patala

Paral

Parul

Pathiri

Padiri

Hude

Kok

Strychinine tree Karaskara

Kajra

Kuchila

Kanjiram

Itti

Ittangi

Mus

Clearing nut tree Tiktaphala

Nirmali

Nirmali

Kadakam, Thettamparal Pachhotti

Akkolam

Andugu

And

Kamblivetti

Lodha

Lod

Njaval

Njaval

Jambuva

Ner

Chamba, Jamba

Champai

Pannerale

Njara

Marungi

Nerkal

Nanthiarvattam

Nantiyavattam

Nantibattu

Nan u

Lodhrah

Bholiya

Clove

Grambu

Black plum

Jambuh

Jamun

Jam

Rose apple

Campeyah

Gulab jamun Gulab jamb

East Indian rosebay

Nandivrksah

Chandni

Tamarind tree

Tintrini

Ampli

Tentaul

Valanpuli

Puli amilam

Amli

Aml

Teak

Sakah

Sagaun

Segun

Thekku

Tekku

Tega

Ped

Wild indigo

Sarapunkah

Sarphomka

Bannilgach

Kozhinjil

Kattukkolincai

Phanike

Vem

White murdah

Arjunah

Arjun

Arjun

Neermaruthu

Atumaruttu

Arjun

Tittu

Belleric myrobalan Indian almond

Aksha

Bulla

Bahera

Thanni

Tani

Vibhita

Bhu

Grahadruma

Budam

Bengla

Nattubadham

Nattuvadom

Badami

Ved

Chebulic myrobalan Flowering murdah Black murdah

Haritaki

Harara

Haritaki

Kadukka

Amagola

Alale

Kar

Poomaruthu

Pei

Ninu

Dharaphala

Ain

Asan

Karimaruthu

Karramarda

Maruva Matti Aini

Portia tree

Haripuccah

Paraspipal

Palaspipal

Poovarasu

Cilanti

Arasi

Gan

Kuri

Nag

Amritaballi

Tiva

Marutu

Nall

Bagamusha Tilakora da

Vallikkanjiram

Amrita

Giloe

Giloe

Chittamrithu

Amridavalli

Sudarsana

Gurch

Padma gulancha

Kattamrithu

Patchiundih

Ajowan

Ajamoda

Ajmud

Randhsni

Ayamodakam

Asamatavomam

Ajamodhavoma

Ajum

Indian stinging nettle Puncture vine

Dusparsa

Barhantia

Bichati

Kodithoova

Kanchori

Turaci

Dur

Goksurah

Gokharu

Gokhrru

Njerinjil

Nerinci

Negalu

Pall

Putaval

Kripodla

Ling

Varahi Cicindah

Aarogyappcha Paraval

213

Banchichang Kattupadavalam a Thelkuthi

Linn. Trigonella foenumgraecum Linn. Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Typha elephantina Roxb. Typhonium flagelliforme Uraria lagopoides (Linn.) Desv. Urginea indica Kunth

Fenugreek

Methi

Methi

Methi

Uluva

Ventayam

Menlesoppu

Men

Indian ipoecacuanh Elephant grass

Lataksiri

Antamul

Antamul

Vallippala

Naippalai

Nipaladaberu

Vett

Eraka

Mohitrina

Hogla

Aattudarbha

Anai korai

Jambuhallu

Jam

Karinthakara

Indian squill

Vanda Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don Vanilla Vanilla planifolia Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash Vitex negundo Linn. Vitex trifolia Vitis vinifera Linn. Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. Zingiber officinale Rosc. Zizyphus rugosa Lam.

Prishniparni

Pithavana

Chakulia

Cheria Orila

Kolakanda

Janglipyaz

Janglipyaz

Kattulli

Rasna

Rasna

Rasna

Maravazha

Kola Nari vengayam

Adavi irulli

Nak

Bandanike

Mar

Kadujirage

Ada

Vanilla

Purple fleabane Somraji Aranyajiraka Ash-coloured Sahadevi fleabane Vetiver Usirah

Baksi

Somraj

Kattujeerakam

Sahadeyi

Kuksim

Poovankurunthal Poovamkurunthal Sahadevi

Gha

Khas

Khas-khas

Ramacham

Vettiver

Vattiveru

Vett

Five leaved chaste tree Three leaved chaste tree Common grapevine

Nirgundi

Samhalu

Samalu

Karinochi

Nirkundi

Lakki-gidda

Nall

Sinduvarah

Saphed samhalu Drakh

Pani

Vellanochi

Nirnochi

Nekkinocci

Noc

Angur

Munthiri

Kotumuntiri

Draksah

Dra

Pitabhringaraj Pitabhamgar Kesraj Manjakkayyunni ah a Indian ginseng Ashwagandha Asgandah Ashvaganda Amukkiram h Fire-flame bush Dhataki Davi Dawai Thathiri

Kalsarji

Guntagalagaru

Bha

Amukkiram

Viremaddinagadi Vaji

Dhattari

Bela

Dha

Pala indigo

Svetakutajah Dudhi

Indrajalu

Danthappala

Tantampalai

Kirikodasige

Jed

Ginger

Ardrakam

Ada

Inji

Inci

Ardraka

Alla

Thodali

Todari

Belahadu Kanika

Pind

Draksa

Adarak Churna

214

Kattu shiragam